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'Kushan Empire'

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription.[1]
Languages	Bactrian (Greek script) Greek (Greek script) Pali (Kharoshthi script) Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script) Possibly Aramaic
Religions	Iranian religions Buddhism Ancient Greek religion Hinduism Zoroastrianism
Capitals	Begram Taxila Mathura
Area	Central Asia Northwestern Indian subcontinent
Existed	60 – 375 CE

The 'Kushan Empire' (c. 1st–3rd centuries) was a state that at its height, about 105–250, stretched from what is now Tajikistan to Afghanistan, Pakistan and down into the Ganges river valley in northern India. The empire was created by the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi confederation, an Indo-European people^[2] from the eastern Tarim Basin, China, possibly related to the Tocharians. They had diplomatic contacts with Rome, Persia and China, and for several centuries were at the center of exchange between the East and the West.

Contents

Origins

Early Kushans

A multi-cultural Empire

Territorial expansion

Main Kushan rulers

Kujula Kadphises (30–80)

Vima Taktu (80–105)

Vima Kadphises (105–127)

Kanishka I (127–147)

Vāsishka

Huvishka (140–183)

Vasudeva I (191–225)

Kushan deities

Some deities on Kushan coinage:

The Kushans and Buddhism

Kushan art

Contacts with Rome

Contacts with China

Decline

In fiction

Main Kushan rulers

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Origins

Chinese sources describe the ''Guishuang'' (Ch: 貴霜), ''i.e.'' the "Kushans", as one of the five aristocratic tribes of the Yuezhi, also spelled Yueh-chi,^[3] (Ch: 月氏), a loose confederation of Indo-European peoples.^[2] The Yuezhi are also generally considered as the easternmost speakers of Indo-European languages, who had been living in the arid grasslands of eastern Central Asia, in modern-day Xinjiang and Gansu, possibly speaking versions of the Tocharian language, until they were driven west by the Xiongnu in 176–160 BCE. The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history as Xiūmì (Ch: 休密), Guishuang (Ch: 貴霜), Shuangmi (Ch: 雙靡), Xidun (Ch: 肸頓), and Dūmì (Ch: 都密).
Historian John Keay explains the movements of the Kushan within a larger setting of mass migrations taking place in the region:

The Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom of Greco-Bactria, in the Bactrian territory (northernmost Afghanistan and Uzbekistan) around 135 BCE. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of the Hindu Kush and the Indus basin (in present day Pakistan), occupying the western part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

Early Kushans

Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushan in the area of Bactria and Sogdiana. Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin, Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace of Khalchayan. Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers^[5], and significantly men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan^[6] (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia). On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such as Ai-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses. The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler was Heraios. He calls himself a "Tyrant" on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation. He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises.

A multi-cultural Empire

In the following century, the ''Guishuang'' (Ch: 貴霜) gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and welded them into a tight confederation under ''yabgu'' (Commander) Kujula Kadphises. The name ''Guishuang'' was adopted in the West and modified into ''Kushan'' to designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call them ''Yuezhi''.

Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scythian tribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally known as Gandhara (An area lying primarily in Pakistan's Pothowar, and Northwest Frontier Provinces region but going in an arc to include Kabul valley and part of Qandahar in Afghanistan) and established twin capitals near present-day Kabul and Peshawar then known as Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.

The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria. They adapted the Greek alphabet (often corrupted) to suit their own language (with the additional development of the letter Þ "sh", as in "Kushan") and soon began minting coinage on the Greek model. On their coins they used Greek language legends combined with Pali legends (in the Kharoshthi script), until the first few years of the reign of Kanishka. After that date, they used Kushan language legends (in an adapted Greek script), combined with legends in Greek (Greek script) and legends in Pali (Kharoshthi script).
The Kushans are believed to have been predominantly Zoroastrian and later Buddhist as well. However, from the time of Wima Takto, many Kushans started adopting aspects of Indian culture like the other nomadic groups who had invaded India, principally the Royal clans of Gujjars. Like the Macedonians and Egyptians they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek Culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, becoming at least partly Hellenised. The first great Kushan emperor Wima Kadphises may have embraced Saivism, as surmised by coins minted during the period. The following Kushan emperors represented a wide variety of faiths including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and possibly Saivism.
The rule of the Kushans linked the seagoing trade of the Indian Ocean with the commerce of the Silk Road through the long-civilized Indus Valley. At the height of the dynasty, the Kushans loosely oversaw a territory that extended to the Aral Sea through present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India.
The loose unity and comparative peace of such a vast expanse encouraged long-distance trade, brought Chinese silks to Rome, and created strings of flourishing urban centers.

Territorial expansion

Direct archaeological evidence of a Kushan rule of long duration is basically available in an area stretching from Surkh Kotal, Begram, the summer capital of the Kushans, Peshawar, Taxila and Mathura, the winter capital of the Kushans.^[7]
Other areas of probable rule include Khwarezm (Russian archaeological findings)^[7] Kausambi (excavations of the Allahabad University),^[7] Sanchi and Sarnath (inscriptions with names and dates of Kushan kings),^[7] Malwa and Maharashtra,^[11] Orissa (imitation of Kushan coins, and large Kushan hoards).^[7]
The recently discovered Rabatak inscription tends to confirm large Kushan dominions in the heartland of India. The lines 4 to 7 of the inscription^[13] describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka, among which six names are identifiable: Ujjain, Kundina, Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra, and Champa (although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it).^[14][15][16]
Northward, in the 2nd century CE, the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into the Tarim Basin, seemingly the original ground of their ancestors the Yuezhi, where they had various contacts with the Chinese. Both archaelogical findins and literary evidence suggest Kushan rule, in Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan.^[7]
As late as the 3rd century CE, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated at Bodh Gaya together with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period.^[18]

Main Kushan rulers

Kujula Kadphises (30–80)

According to the ''Hou Hanshu'': "the prince (xihou) of Guishuang (Badakhshan and the adjoining territories north of the Oxus), named Kujula Kadphises (Ch:丘就却, "Qiujiuque") attacked and exterminated the four other princes (xihou). He set himself up as king of a kingdom called Guishuang."^[19]
He invaded Anxi (Parthia) and took the Gaofu (Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda, and Jibin (Kapisha-Gandhara). Qiujiuque (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died."
These conquests probably took place sometime between 45 and 60, and laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded by his descendants.
Kujula issued an extensive series of coins and fathered at least two sons, (who is known from only two inscriptions, especially the Rabatak inscription, and apparently never have ruled), and seemingly Vima Taktu.
Kujula Kadphises was the great grandfather of Kanishka.

Vima Taktu (80–105)

Vima Takt[u] (or Tak[to], Ancient Chinese:阎膏珍 ''Yangaozhen'' ) is not mentioned in the Rabatak inscription (Sadashkana is instead. See also the reference to Sims-William’s article below). He was the predecessor of Vima Kadphises, and Kanishka I. He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent. The ''Hou Hanshu'' says:
:"His [Kujula Kadphises'] son, Yangaozhen (Vima Taktu), became king in his place. He conquered Tianzhu (Northwestern India) and installed a General to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang (Kushan) king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi."^[20]

Vima Kadphises (105–127)

Vima Kadphises (Kushan language: Οοημο Καδφισης) was a Kushan emperor from around 90–100 CE, the son of Sadashkana and the grandson of Kujula Kadphises, and the father of Kanishka I, as detailed by the Rabatak inscription.
Vima Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Afghanistan and north-west India. He issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He was the first to introduce gold coinage in India, in addition to the existing copper and silver coinage.

Kanishka I (127–147)

The rule of Kanishka I (कनिष्क), the second great Kushan emperor, fifth Kushan king, who flourished for at least 28 years from c. 127. Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription:
:"In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundinya< Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and so long unto (i.e. as far as) the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa)." Rabatak inscription, Lines 4–6.

His territory was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (now Peshawar in northern Pakistan) and Mathura, in northern India. He is also credited (along with Raja Dab) for building the massive, ancient Fort at Bathinda (Qila Mubarak), in the modern city of Bathinda, Indian Punjab.
The Kushans also had a summer capital in Bagram (then known as Kapisa), where the "Begram Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found. According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises, the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises. Kanishka’s era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 on the basis of Harry Falk’s ground-breaking research.^[21][22] Kanishka’s era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.

Vāsishka

Vāsishka was a Kushan emperor, who seems to have a short reign following Kanishka. His rule is recorded as far south as Sanchi (near Vidisa), where several inscriptions in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (The Sanchi inscription of "Vaksushana" – i. e. Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (The Sanchi inscription of Vasaska – i. e. Vasishka) of the Kanishka era.

Huvishka (140–183)

Huvishka (Kushan: Οοηϸκι, "Ooishki") was a Kushan emperor from the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 140 CE) until the succession of Vasudeva I about forty years later. His rule was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the Empire. In particular he devoted time and effort early in his reign to the exertion of greater control over the city of Mathura.

Vasudeva I (191–225)

Vasudeva I (Kushan: Βαζοδηο "Bazodeo", Chinese: 波調 "Bodiao") was the last of the "Great Kushans." Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishka’s era suggest his reign extended from at least 191 to 225 CE. He was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the Sassanids as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of the Indo-Sassanids or Kushanshahs from around 240 CE.

Kushan deities

The Kushan religious pantheon is extremely varied, as revealed by their coins and their seals, on which more than 30 different gods appear, belonging to the Hellenistic, the Iranian, and to a lesser extent the Indian world. Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on early coins:

★ Ηλιος (Sun god Helios), Ηφαηστος (Fire god Hephaistos), Σαληνη (Moon god Selene), Ανημος (Wind god Anemos)
The most numerous deities depicted on Kushan coins are however Iranian in nature:

★ Μαο (''Mao'', Mah), Οαδο (''Oado'' Vata-Vayu of the Wind)

★ Μιθρο, Μιιρο, Μιορο, Μιυρο (''Mithro'' and variants, Mithra)

★ Νανα, Ναναια, Ναναϸαο (Sumero-Akkadian/Pan-Asiatic ''Nana'', in a Zoroastrian context Aredvi Sura Anahita)

★ Μαναοβαγο, (''Manaobago'', Vohu Manah), Λροοασπο (Ahura Mazda), Αρδοχϸο (''Ardoxsho'', Arta Vahishta), Οραλαγνο (''Orlagno'', Verethragna), Αθϸο (''Athro'', Atar), Μοζδοοανο ("Mazda the Victorious"?)
Unidentified are:
Φαρρο ''Pharro''
A few Indian divinities were used as well:

★ Βοδδο ("Boddo", the name of the Buddha), Ϸακαμανο Βοδδο ("Shakamano Boddho", the historical Shakyamuni Buddha), Μετραγο Βοδδο ("Metrago Boddo", the bodhisattava Maitreya).

★ Οηϸο ("Oesho", long considered as the Hindu god Shiva, although recent studies tend to indicate that Oisho is the Helleno-Zoroastrian, Herakles-Verethragna, with admittedly many of the attributes of Shiva.^[23]) The Kushanas had great veneration for Shiva.^[24] A coin of Huvishka with the legend "" ("Lord of Hosts") shows Shiva in his archer form as Rudra standing with a single pair of arms holding a full-length bow and arrow.^[25] On the reverse of the coins of Kadphises there is an almost complete identification of the monarch with Shiva with a text given in a legend.^[26][27]

★ . On a variety of Kanishka's coins, (or ) is depicted as running very fast, an early mode of representation that has not been seen in any later depiction of that deity.^[28] In Hindu iconography, was considered a visible form of Shiva, one of whose faces (in his five-faced form) is ^[29]

Some deities on Kushan coinage:

The Kushans and Buddhism

Cultural exchanges also flourished, encouraging the development of Greco-Buddhism, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist cultural elements, that was to expand into central and northern Asia as Mahayana Buddhism.
Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated into the language of Sanskrit. Along with the Indian emperors Ashoka and Harsha Vardhana and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors.

Kushan art

The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, are the best known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct depictions of Kushans are known from Gandhara, where they are represented with a tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya.
In the iconography, they are never associated however with the very Hellenistic "Standing Buddha" statues (See image), which might therefore correspond to an earlier historical period. The style of these friezes incorporating Kushan devotees is already strongly Indianized, quite remote from earlier Hellenistic depictions of the Buddha:

Contacts with Rome

Several Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and India during the 2nd century, probably referring to the Kushans.
Historia Augusta, speaking of Emperor Hadrian (117–138) tells:
:"''Reges Bactrianorum legatos ad eum, amicitiae petendae causa, supplices miserunt''"
:"The kings of the Bactrians sent supplicant ambassadors to him, to seek his friendship."

Also in 138, according to Aurelius Victor (''Epitome''‚ XV, 4), and Appian (''Praef.'', 7), Antoninus Pius, successor to Hadrian, received some Indian, Bactrian (Kushan) and Hyrcanian ambassadors.
The Chinese Historical Chronicle of the Hou Hanshu also describes the exchange of goods between northwestern India and the Roman Empire at that time: "To the west (Tiazhu, northwestern India) communicates with Da Qin (the Roman Empire). Precious things from Da Qin can be found there, as well as fine cotton cloths, excellent wool carpets, perfumes of all sorts, sugar loaves, pepper, ginger, and black salt."
The summer capital of the Kushan in Begram has yielded a considerable amount of goods imported from the Roman Empire, in particular various types of glassware.
:''See also: Roman trade with India''

Contacts with China

During the 1st and 2nd century, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the north and occupied parts of the Tarim Basin, their original grounds, putting them at the center of the profitable Central Asian commerce with the Roman Empire. They are related to have collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly when they collaborated with the Chinese general Ban Chao against the Sogdians in 84, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of Kashgar. Around 85, they also assisted the Chinese general in an attack on Turfan, east of the Tarim Basin.
In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested, but were denied, a Han princess, even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86 with a force of 70,000, but, exhausted by the expedition, were finally defeated by the smaller Chinese force. The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of the Chinese emperor Han He (89–106).

Later, around 116, the Kushans under Kanishka established a kingdom centered on Kashgar, also taking control of Khotan and Yarkand, which were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. They introduced the Brahmi script, the Indian Prakrit language for administration, and expanded the influence of Greco-Buddhist art which developed into Serindian art.
The Kushans are again recorded to have sent presents to the Chinese court in 158–159 during the reign of the Chinese emperor Han Huan.
Following these interactions, cultural exhanges further increased, and Kushan Buddhist missionaries, such as Lokaksema, became active in the Chinese capital cities of Loyang and sometimes Nanjing, where they particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They were the first recorded promoters of Hinayana and Mahayana scriptures in China, greatly contributing to the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism.

Decline

From the 3rd century the Kushan empire began to fragment.
Around 225 Vasudeva I died and the Kushan empire was divided into western and eastern halves. Around 224–240, the Sassanids invaded Bactria and Northern India, where they are known as the Indo-Sassanids.
Around 270, the Kushans lost their territories on the Gangetic plain, where the Gupta Empire was established around 320 and to the Sassanids during Shapur II's reign, notably the area that comprises Afghanistan.
During the middle of the 4th century a Kushan vassal, named Kidara, rose to power and overthrew the old Kushan dynasty. He created a kingdom known as the Kidarite Kingdom, although he probably considered himself a Kushan, as indicated by the Kushan style of his coins. The Kidarite seem to have been rather prosperous, although on a smaller scale than their Kushan predecessors.
These remnants of the Kushan empire were ultimately wiped out in the 5th century by the invasions of the White Huns, and later the expansion of Islam.

In fiction

The Kushan Empire was used to represent a dystopian demonic empire within the hugely popular ''Berserk'' manga. Its culture is based on that of ancient and medieval India, which was the cultural centre of the real Kushan Empire, including Indian weapons such as chakrams, katars and urumis, and martial arts similar to Kalarippayattu, but adapted for the nihilistic setting. In this fictional setting it is ruled by the Emperor Ganishka, a name based upon the real Kushan Emperor Kanishka.

Main Kushan rulers

★ Heraios (c. 1 – 30), first Kushan ruler, generally Kushan ruling period is disputed

★ Kujula Kadphises (c. 30 – c. 80)

★ Vima Takto, (c. 80 – c. 105) alias Soter Megas or "Great Saviour."

★ Vima Kadphises (c. 105 – c. 127) the first great Kushan emperor

★ Kanishka I (127 – c. 147)

★ Vāsishka (c. 151 – c. 155)

★ Huvishka (c. 155 – c. 187)

★ Vasudeva I (c. 191 – to at least 230), the last of the great Kushan emperors

★ Kanishka II (c. 226 – 240)

★ Vashishka (c. 240 – 250)

★ Kanishka III (c. 255 – 275)

★ Vasudeva II (c. 290 – 310)

★
★ Vasudeva III reported son of Vasudeva III,a King,uncertain.

★
★
★ Vasudeva IV reported possible child of Vasudeva III,ruling in Kandahar,uncertain

★
★
★
★ Vasudeva of Kabul reported Possible child of Vasudeva IV,ruling in Kabul,uncertain.

★ Chhu (c. 310? – 325?)

★ Shaka I (c. 325 – 345)

★ Kipunada (c. 350 – 375)

See also

★ Gujjar

★ Yuezhi

★ Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan

★ Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

★ Indo-Greek Kingdom

★ Indo-Scythians

★ Indo-Parthian Kingdom

★ Indo-Sassanid

★ Greco-Buddhism

★ Kushanshahr

Notes

1. "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, upto which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself." "Ancient Indian Inscriptions", S. R. Goyal, p. 93. See also the analysis of Sims-Williams and J.Cribb, who had a central role in the decipherment: "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in "Silk Road Art and Archaeology" No4, 1995-1996. Also Mukherjee B.N. "The Great Kushanan Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin.
2. http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/kush/hd_kush.htm
3. For romanized spelling Yueh-chi see: Keay, p. 110.
4. http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/kush/hd_kush.htm
5. Lebedynsky, p. 62.
6. Lebedynsky, p. 15.
7. Rosenfield, p. 41.
8. Rosenfield, p. 41.
9. Rosenfield, p. 41.
10. Rosenfield, p. 41.
11. For "Malwa and Maharashtra, for which it is speculated that the Kushans had an alliance with the Western Kshatrapas", see: Rosenfield, p. 41.
12. Rosenfield, p. 41.
13. For a translation of the full text of the Rabatak inscription see: Mukherjee, B.N., "The Great Kushana Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin, Calcutta, 1995. This translation is quoted in: Goyal (2005), p.88.
14. For quotation: "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, upto which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself."see: Goyal, p. 93.
15. See also the analysis of Sims-Williams and J. Cribb, specialists of the field, who had a central role in the decipherment: "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in ''Silk Road Art and Archaeology'' No. 4, 1995-1996. pp.75-142.
16. Bactrian Documents from Ancient Afghanistan
17. Rosenfield, p. 41.
18. British Museum display, Asian Art room.
19. Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[1]
20. Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[2]
21. Falk, Harry. 2001. “The yuga of Sphujiddhvaja and the era of the Kuşâņas.” ''Silk Road Art and Archaeology VII'', pp. 121–136.
22. Falk, Harry. 2004. "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta records." Harry Falk. ''Silk Road Art and Archaeology X'' , pp. 167–176.
23. Bopearachchi, .
24. For quotation "The had great veneration for ..." see: Sivaramamurti, p. 59.
25. For description of the coin, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 59, and figure 34.
26. For the identification of Kadphises with Shiva via the legend, and text of legend, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 59.
27. For Kadphises ordering the depiction of Shiva on his coins see: Avari, pp. 141-142.
28. For the running coins, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 56, and figure 29.
29. For as a form of Shiva, see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 56-57.
30. Faccena, p. 77 and following.

References

★ India: The Ancient Past, , Burjor, Avari, Routledge, 2007,

★ De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale, , Osmund, Bopearachchi, Association imago-musée de Lattes, 2003, ISBN 2-9516679-2-2

★ Faccenna, Domenico (1980). Butkara I (Swāt, Pakistan) 1956-1962, Volume III 1 (in English). Rome: IsMEO (Istituto Italiano Per Il Medio Ed Estremo Oriente).

★ Falk, Harry. 1995-1996. ''Silk Road Art and Archaeology IV''.

★ Falk, Harry. 2001. "The yuga of Sphujiddhvaja and the era of the ." ''Silk Road Art and Archaeology VII'', pp. 121–136.

★ Falk, Harry. 2004. "The era in Gupta records." Harry Falk. ''Silk Road Art and Archaeology X'' , pp. 167–176.

★ Goyal, S. R. "Ancient Indian Inscriptions" Kusumanjali Book World, Jodhpur (India), 2005.

★ Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[3]

★ Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [4]

★ India: A History, , John, Keay, Grove Press, 2000,

★ Les Saces, , Iaroslav, Lebedynsky, Editions Errance, 2006,

★ The Dynastic Art of the Kushans, , John M., Rosenfield, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1993,

★ Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva's Iconography, , C., Sivaramamurti, Abhinav Publications, 1976,

Further reading

★ Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chaptaire de Hiuen-Tsang)." ''BEFEO'' No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322–369.

★ Hargreaves, H. (1910–11): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī"; ''Archaeological Survey of India, 1910–11'', pp. 25–32.

★ Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.

★ Konow, Sten. Editor. 1929. ''Kharoshthī Inscriptions with Exception of those of Asoka''. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. II, Part I. Reprint: Indological Book House, Varanasi, 1969.

★ Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.

★ Liu, Xinru 2001 “Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies.” ''Journal of World History'', Volume 12, No. 2, Fall 2001. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 261–292. [5].

★ Sarianidi, Viktor. 1985. ''The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan''. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York.

★ Sims-Williams, Nicholas. 1998. “Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with an Appendix on the names of Kujula Kadphises and Vima Taktu in Chinese.” ''Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian Studies''. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden. 1998, pp. 79-93.

★ Spooner, D. B. 1908–9. "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī."; ''Archaeological Survey of India'', 1908–9, pp. 38–59.

★ Watson, Burton. Trans. 1993. ''Records of the Grand Historian of China: Han Dynasty II.'' Translated from the ''Shiji'' of Sima Qian. Chapter 123: "The Account of Dayuan," Columbia University Press. Revised Edition. ISBN 0-231-08166-9; ISBN 0-231-08167-7 (pbk.)

★ Zürcher, E. (1968). "The Yüeh-chih and Kaniṣka in the Chinese sources." ''Papers on the Date of Kaniṣka''. Basham, A. L., ed., 1968. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 346-393.

External links

★ Metropolitan Museum capsule history

★ New documents help fix controversial Kushan dating

★ Antique Indian Coins

★ Brief Guide to Kushan History