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In Greek mythology, the 'Labyrinth' (Gk. λαβύρινθος ''labyrinthos'') was an elaborate structure constructed for King Minos of Crete and designed by the legendary artificer Daedalus to hold the Minotaur, a creature that was half man and half bull and which was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. Daedalus had made the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it.^[1] Theseus was aided by Ariadne, who provided him with a fateful thread, literally the "clew," or "clue," to wind his way back again.
The term ''labyrinth'' is often used interchangeably with ''maze'', but modern scholars of the subject use a stricter definition. For them, a maze is a tour puzzle in the form of a complex branching passage with choices of path and direction; while a single-path (''"unicursal"'') labyrinth has only a single Eulerian path to the center. A labyrinth has an unambiguous through-route to the center and back and is not designed to be difficult to navigate.
This unicursal design was wide-spread in artistic depictions of the Minotaur's Labyrinth even though both logic and literary descriptions of it make it clear that the Minotaur was trapped in a multicursal maze.^[2]
A labyrinth can be represented both symbolically and/or physically. Symbolically it is represented in art or designs on pottery, as body art, etched on walls of caves, etc. Physical representations are common throughout the world, and are generally constructed on the ground so they may be walked along from entry point to center and back again. They have historically been used in both group ritual and for private meditation.

Contents

Ancient labyrinths

Herodotus' "Egyptian labyrinth"

Pliny's "Lemnian labyrinth"

Pliny's "Italian labyrinth"

Ancient labyrinths outside Europe

Labyrinth as pattern

Medieval labyrinths and "turf mazes"

Modern labyrinths

Modern takes on Greek labyrinth

Cultural meanings

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Ancient labyrinths

Pliny's ''Natural History'' mentions four ancient labyrinths: the Cretan labyrinth, an "Egyptian labyrinth", a "Lemnian labyrinth" and an "Italian labyrinth".
"''Labyrinth''" is a word of pre-Greek ("Pelasgian") origin absorbed by classical Greek, and is perhaps related to the Lydian "''labrys''" ("double-edged axe," a symbol of royal power, which fits with the theory that the labyrinth was originally the royal Minoan palace on Crete and meant "palace of the double-axe"), with ''-inthos'' connoting "place" (as in "Corinth"). The complex palace of Knossos in Crete is usually implicated, though the actual dancing-ground, depicted in frescoed patterns at Knossos, has not been found. Something was being shown to visitors as a labyrinth at Knossos in the 1st century AD (Philostratos, ''De vita Apollonii Tyanei'' iv.34, noted in Kerenyi, p 101 n. 171)
Greek mythology did not recall, however, that in Crete there was a ''Lady'' who presided over the Labyrinth. A tablet inscribed in Linear B found at Knossos records a gift "to all the gods honey; to the mistress of the labyrinth honey." All the gods together receive as much honey as the Mistress of the Labyrinth alone. "She must have been a Great Goddess", Kerenyi observes (Kerenyi 1976 p 91).
That the Cretan labyrinth had been a dancing-ground and was made for Ariadne rather than for Minos was remembered by Homer in ''Iliad'' xviii.590–593 where, in the pattern that Hephaestus inscribed on Achilles' shield, one incident pictured was a dancing-ground "like the one that Daedalus designed in the spacious town of Knossos for Ariadne of the lovely locks". Even the labyrinth dance was depicted on the shield, where "youths and marriageable maidens were dancing on it with their hands on one another's wrists... circling as smoothly on their accomplished feet as the wheel of a potter...and there they ran in lines to meet each other."
The labyrinth is the referent in the familiar Greek patterns of the endlessly running meander, to give the "Greek key" its common modern name. In the 3rd century BCE coins from Knossos were still struck with the labyrinth symbol. The predominant labyrinth form during this period is the simple 7-circuit style known as the ''classical'' labyrinth.
The term ''labyrinth'' came to be applied to any unicursal maze, whether of a particular circular shape (''illustration'') or rendered as square. At the center, a decisive turn brought one out again. In the Socratic dialogue that Plato produced as ''Euthydemus'', Socrates describes the labyrinthine line of a logical argument:

Herodotus' "Egyptian labyrinth"

Even more generally, "labyrinth" might be applied to any extremely complicated maze-like structure. Herodotus, in Book II of his ''Histories'', describes as a "labyrinth" a building complex in Egypt, "near the place called the City of Crocodiles," that he considered to surpass the pyramids in its astonishing ambition:

Pliny's "Lemnian labyrinth"

Pliny's ''Natural History'' (36.90) lists the legendary Smilis, reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus, together with the historical mid sixth-century BCE architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as two of the makers of the "Lemnian labyrinth", which Andrew Stewart (''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works'', "Smilis") regards as "evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian temple's location ''en limnais'', "in the marsh".

Pliny's "Italian labyrinth"

According to Pliny, the tomb of the great Etruscan general Lars Porsena contained an underground maze. Pliny's description of the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear, had not observed this structure himself, but is quoting the historian and Roman antiquarian Varro.

Ancient labyrinths outside Europe

At about the same time as the appearance of the Greek labyrinth, a topologically identical pattern appeared in Native American culture, the Tohono O'odham labyrinth which features I'itoi, the "Man in the Maze". The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct differences from the Greek: it is radial in design, and the entrance is at the top, where traditional Greek labyrinths have the entrance at the bottom (see below).
A prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in Goa shows the same pattern and has been dated to circa 2500 BCE. Other examples have been found among cave art in northern India and on a dolmen shrine in the Nilgiri Mountains, but are difficult to date accurately. Early labyrinths in India all follow the Classical pattern; some have been described as plans of forts or cities [1]. Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and Tantric texts from the 17th century onward. They are often called "Chakravyuha" in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient Mahabharata epic.

Labyrinth as pattern

In antiquity the less complicated labyrinth pattern familiar from medieval examples was already developed. In Roman floor mosaics the simple classical labyrinth is framed in the ''meander'' border pattern, squared off as the medium requires, but still recognisable. Often an image of a bull-man, a minotaur, appears in the centre of these mosaic labyrinths. Roman meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold shape that is now familiarly known as the medieval form. The labyrinth retains its connection with death and a triumphant return: at Hadrumentum in North Africa (now Sousse), a Roman family tomb has a fourfold labyrinth mosaic floor, with a dying Minotaur in the center and a mosaic inscription: HICINCLUSUS.VITAMPERDIT "Enclosed here, he loses life" (Kerenyi, fig.31).

Medieval labyrinths and "turf mazes"

The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth design came about during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries with the grand pavement labyrinths of the gothic cathedrals, most notably Chartres and Amiens in Northern France and the Duomo di Siena in Tuscany. It is this version of the design that is thought to be the inspiration for the many secular turf mazes in the UK, such as survive at Wing, Rutland, Hilton, Cambridgeshire, Alkborough (North Lincolnshire), and at Saffron Walden in Essex.
Over the same period some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical labyrinths were constructed in Scandinavia. These labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are marked out with stones most often in the simple classical form. They often have names which translate as "Troy Town". They are thought to have been constructed by early fishing communities, to trap malevolent trolls/winds in the labyrinth's coils in order to ensure a safe fishing expedition. There are also stone labyrinths on the Isles of Scilly, although none of them is known to date back as far as the Scandinavian ones.
There are remarkable examples of the labyrinth shape from a whole range of ancient and disparate cultures. The symbol has appeared in all its forms and media (petroglyphs, classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf and basketry) at some time, throughout most parts of the world, from Java, Native North and South America, Australia, India and Nepal.

Modern labyrinths

In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the labyrinth symbol, which has inspired a revival in labyrinth building, notably at Willen Park, Milton Keynes; Grace Cathedral, San Francisco; Tapton Park, Chesterfield; and the Labyrinth in Shed 16 in the Old Port of Montreal.
Countless computer games depict mazes and labyrinths.
On bobsled, luge, and skeleton tracks, a labyrinth is where there are three to four curves in succession without a straight line in between any of the turns.

Modern takes on Greek labyrinth

In modern imagery, the labyrinth is often confused with the maze, in which one may become lost.
The myth of the labyrinth has in recent times found incarnation in a stage play by Ilinka Crvenkovska which explores notions of a man's ability to control his own fate. Theseus in an act of suicide is killed by the Minotaur, who is himself killed by the horrified townspeople.
The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was entranced with the idea of the labyrinth, and used it extensively in his short stories. His use of it has inspired other authors' works (e.g. Umberto Eco's ''The Name of the Rose'', Mark Z. Danielewski's ''House of Leaves''). Additionally, Roger Zelazny's fantasy series, ''The Chronicles of Amber'', features a labyrinth, called "the Pattern," which grants those who walk it the power to move between parallel worlds. The avant-garde multi-screen film, ''In the Labyrinth'', presents a search for meaning in a symbolic modern labyrinth.
The labyrinth is also an important subject in contemporary fine arts. Remarkable 20th-century examples include Piet Mondrian's ''Dam and Ocean'' (1915), Joan Miro's ''Labirynth'' (1923), Pablo Picasso's ''Minotauromachia'' (1935), M.C. Escher's ''Relativity'' (1953), Friedensreich Hundertwasser's ''Labyrinth'' (1957), Jean Dubuffet's ''Logological Cabinet'' (1970), Richard Long's ''Connemara sculpture'' (1971), Joe Tilson's ''Earth Maze'' (1975), Richard Fleischner's ''Chain Link Maze'' (1978), István Orosz's ''Atlantis Anamorphosis'' (2000), and Dmitry Rakov's ''Labyrinth'' (2003).

Cultural meanings

Prehistoric labyrinths are believed to have served as traps for malevolent spirits or as defined paths for ritual dances. In medieval times, the labyrinth symbolized a hard path to God with a clearly defined center (God) and one entrance (birth).
Labyrinths can be thought of as symbolic forms of pilgrimage; people can walk the path, ascending toward salvation or enlightenment. Many people could not afford to travel to holy sites and lands, so labyrinths and prayer substituted for such travel. Later the religious significance of labyrinths faded, and they served primarily for entertainment, though recently their spiritual aspect has seen a resurgence.
Many newly-made labyrinths exist today, in churches and parks. Labyrinths are used by modern mystics to help achieve a contemplative state. Walking among the turnings, one loses track of direction and of the outside world, and thus quiets his mind. The result is a relaxed mental attitude, free of internal dialog. This is a form of meditation. Many people believe that meditation has health benefits as well as spiritual benefits. The Labyrinth Society provides a locator for modern labyrinths in North America.

See also

★ Prayer Labyrinth.

★ Caerdroia.

★ Troy Town.

★ Turf maze.

★ Julian's Bower.

★ ''Pharaoh'' (1895 novel by Bolesław Prus, incorporating an Egyptian Labyrinth inspired by that described in Book II of The Histories of Herodotus).

★ ''Labyrinths'' (1962 collection of short stories by Jorge Luis Borges).

★ ''Labyrinth'' (1986 film).

★ ''Labyrinth'' (2005 novel by Kate Mosse).

★ ''Pan's Labyrinth'' (2006 film).

★ ''Maryam's Maze'' (novel by Mansoura Ez-eldin).

★ Labyrinth Arts (community arts group).

★ Labyrinth (inner ear).

★ Labyrinthitis (balance disorder caused by inflammation of inner ear).

References

1. Penelope Reed Doob, ''The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages'', p 36, ISBN 0-8014-8000-0
2. Penelope Reed Doob, ''The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages'', p 40-1, ISBN 0-8014-8000-0

Further reading

★ Kereny, Karl, 1976. ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life,'' (Princeton University Press).

★ Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, ''The Art of the Maze'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson (1990) ISBN 0-297-83027-9

★ [W.H. Matthews, 1922. ''Mazes and Labyrinths: A general Account of Their History and Development'' (London: Longmans, Green) on-line]

★ Jeff Saward, ''Magical Paths'', Mitchell Beazley (2002) ISBN 1-84000-573-4

★ W.H. Matthews, ''Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development'' (1927). Includes Bibliography. Dover Publications (1970) ISBN 0-486-22614-X

★ Henning Eichberg, 2005: ''Racing in the labyrinth? About some inner contradictions of running.'' In: ''Athletics, Society & Identity.'' Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5:1) Athen: Foundation of the Hellenic World, 169-192.

★ Edward Hays, ''The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the Journey of Lent'', 1994.

External links

★ Jeff Saward's Labyrinthos site

★ The International Labyrinth Society

★ Modern patterns, articles & stories

★ Maze classification Extensive classification of labyrinths and algorithms to solve them.

★ IRRGARTENWELT.DE Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn labyrinths and mazes

★ Labyrinth History and Information

★ Mystery Labyrinth Remarks, descriptions, animations, pictures, links ...

★ Philippe Fassier Maze Designer's Website

★ The Geometry of History, Tessa Morrison, School of Fine Arts

★ Labyrinth Arts - Stoke-on-Trent (UK) based Community Group

★ Thomas M. Waldmann, "Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle" 2007 A labyrinthine Cretan cave system near Gortyn (in German)

★ Jo Edkins's Maze Page