(Redirected from Latin nouns)Latin is an
inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a '
declension'. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. For simple declension paradigms, visit the Wiktionary appendices:
, , , , .
Grammatical cases
A complete declension consists of seven
grammatical cases:
★ The
nominative case, which is used to express the subject of a statement. It is also used with copulative verbs.
★ The
vocative case, which is used to address someone or something in direct speech. This case is indicated in English by intonation or punctuation, e.g. "Mary is going to the store" ("Mary" is nominative) compared to "Mary, are you going to the store?" or "Mary!" ("Mary" is vocative).
★ The
accusative case, which expresses the direct object of a verb. In English, except for a small number of words which display a distinct accusative case (e.g., who > whom), the accusative and nominative cases are identical.
★ The
genitive case, which expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English, the genitive case is represented analytically by the preposition or by the
enclitic "–'s", which itself developed from the genitive case. This –'s closely resembles the Latin suffix "–is".
★ The
dative case, which expresses the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In English, the prepositions , and most commonly denote this case analytically.
★ The
ablative case, which expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In English, the prepositions , , , and are most commonly used to indicate this case.
★ The
locative case, which is used to express the place in or on which, or the time at which, an action is performed. The locative case is extremely marginal in Latin, applying only to the names of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words, and is identical to the genitive case (in the first and second declension singular), the dative case (in the first and second declension plural and in the third declension) or the ablative case (fourth and fifth declension).
The sequence of the grammatical cases above has been the usual order in Britain and many European and
Commonwealth countries since the publication of
Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866). This order is argued to reflect the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings. NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC is standard in North America, and in fact goes back to Byzantine grammarians originally writing about Greek. In modern American texts, there is an increasing tendency to put the VOC at the end due to it appearing so rarely as to not disturb the order of the 4½ declensions that it does not appear in.
In Polish-language Latin learner texts, the most common order is NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC, which is a similar order to the one conventionally adopted for Modern Polish. Likewise, in German textbooks, the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-VOC-ABL is used, to mirror the conventional order of the four grammatical cases of Modern German (NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC). The same order is used in Italian textbooks, although Italian has no grammatical cases. In Dutch textbooks, the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC is predominant. Dutch doesn't have grammatical cases, but this order is the most convenient because it corresponds to the traditional order used in ancient Greek and modern German, two languages which are often taught besides Latin in secondary school. However, Brazilian grammarian
Napoleão Mendes uses the unusual sequence NOM-VOC-GEN-DAT-ABL-ACC. Finnish Latin text books usually use the order NOM-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL (The vocative case is only used in the second declension and the locative case isn't usually taught alongside the other cases but instead it's separated into its own chapter).
Syncretic trends
Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of
another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:
★ The accusative is always identical to the nominative in the neuter (both singular and plural, across all declensions). In addition, the accusative is the same as the nominative in the plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (but note the alternative –īs accusative plural ending for i-stem nominals, different from nominative –ēs).
★ The vocative is always identical to the nominative in the plural, and also in the singular except in the second declension and a few Greek nouns. For example, the vocative of Aeneās is Aenea, although Aeneās is first declension.
★ The dative is always the same as the ablative in the plural, and in the singular in the second declension, the third-declension full i-stems i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters.
★ The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-declension, and fourth declension nouns that are not neuter.
★ The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension nouns.
★ Plural neuter nominative/accusative always ends in -a (with a few exceptions: demonstrative ''hic'' and related ''istic'' and ''illic'', relative/interrogative ''quī'' and friends; in all of them, the neuter plural takes the same form as feminine singular nominative).
★ The accusative singular ends in short vowel plus -m, except for a few neuters with unusual base forms.
★ The accusative plural (assuming not neuter) ends in a long vowel plus -s; so does the nominative plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (again assuming not neuter).
History and development of the Latin case system
A careful study of the declensions of Latin will reveal that originally there were only two patterns of ending; those of the first and second declension and those of the third declension. It was common for some words to borrow endings from the other set of endings which is why we see words like ''animabus'' in place of ''animis''. This process also likely helped to give birth to the fourth and fifth declensions. Also note that all adjectives follow either the pattern of the first and second declensions or that of the third. The pattern of the first and second declensions as seen in Old Latin clearly show a mutual origin with the first and second declensions of Ancient Greek.
| 'First declension, ''land''' | 'Second declension, ''word''' |
|---|
| 'Greek' | 'Old Latin' | 'Classical Latin' | 'Greek' | 'Old Latin' | 'Classical Latin' |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
| 'Nominative' | chor'a' | chor'ai' | terr'a' | terr'ai' | terr'a' | terr'ae' | log'os' | log'oi' | log'os' | log'oi' | log'us' | log'i' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | chor'a' | chor'ai' | terr'a' | terr'ai' | terr'a' | terr'ae' | log'e' | log'oi' | log'e' | log'oi' | log'e' | log'i' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | chor'an' | chor'as' | terr'am' | terr'as' | terr'am' | terr'as' | log'on' | log'ous' | log'om' | log'os' | log'um' | log'os' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | chor'as' | chor'on' | terr'as' | terr'om' | terr'ae' | terr'arum' | log'ou' | log'on' | log'oi' | log'om' | log'i' | log'orum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | chor'a' | chor'ais' | terr'ai' | terr'ais' | terr'ae' | terr'is' | log'oi' | log'on' | log'oi' | log'om' | log'o' | log'is' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | —— | —— | terr'ad' | terr'is' | terr'a' | terr'is' | —— | —— | log'od' | log'ois' | log'o' | log'is' |
|---|---|
However, we see that in the third declension, even cognates between Greek and Latin have very different endings in Latin. This probably shows that the third declension is a Latin-specific development, though this has yet to be proved completely.
| '''leon, –is''
lion' |
|---|
| 'Greek' | 'Old Latin' | 'Classical Latin' |
|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | Leon | Leon | Leo |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | Leon | Leon | Leon |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | Leon'ta' | Leon'em' | Leon'em' |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | Leon'tos' | Leon'is' | Leon'is' |
|---|
| 'Dative' | Leon'ti' | Leon'ei' | Leon'i' |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | XXX | Leon'eid' | Leon'e' |
|---|
| 'Nominative' | Leon'tes' | Leon'es' | Leon'es' |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | Leon'tes' | Leon'es' | Leon'es' |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | Leon'tas' | Leon'es' | Leon'es' |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | Leon'ton' | Leon'om' | Leon'um' |
|---|
| 'Dative' | Leo'usi' | Leon'ebos' | Leon'ibus' |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | XXX | Leon'ebus' | Leon'ibus' |
|---|
As seen here, the Greek and Latin are somewhat similar, but are more different than they are similar. It is likely that if these declensions ever were the same in the past that they began to separate far sooner than the first and second declensions. New words being brought into Latin were usually put into the Third declension and this may reveal the fact that the basic grammatical thinking of the Latins was along the lines of the Third declension and that the First and Second are the exceptions.
First declension (a)
Nouns of this declension usually end in –a and are typically feminine, for example 'road' (''via, viae'' fem.) and 'water' (''aqua, aquae'' fem.), with a few masculine exceptions, including 'farmer' (''agricola, agricolae'' masc.), 'sailor' (''nauta, nautae'' masc.), 'charioteer' (''auriga, aurigae'' masc.), 'inhabitant' (''incola, incolae'' masc.), 'pirate' (''pīrāta, pīrātae'' masc.), 'writer' (''scrība, scrībae'' masc.), and 'poet' (''poēta, poētae'' masc). The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is ''a''. The nominative singular form consists of the
stem and the
affix ''-a'', and the genitive singular form is the stem plus ''-ae''.
| '''puella, –ae''
girl, maiden f. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | puella | '–a' | puellae | '–ae' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | puella | '–a' | puellae | '–ae' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | puellam | '–am' | puellās | '–ās' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | puellae | '–ae' | puellārum | '–ārum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | puellae | '–ae' | puellīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | puellā | '–ā' | puellīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
First declension Greek nouns
The first declension also holds three types of
Greek nouns. They are declined irregularly in the singular. These nouns are derived from Ancient Greek's
Alpha Declension.
| '''neaniās, –ae''
boy, chap m. | '''psychē, –ēs''
psyche, mind, spirit f. | '''athlētēs, –ae''
athlete, wrestler m. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | neaniās | '–ās' | neaniae | '–ae' | psychē | '–ē' | psychae | '–ae' | athlētēs | '–ēs' | athlētae | '–ae' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | neaniā | '–ā' | neaniae | '–ae' | psychē | '–ē' | psychae | '–ae' | athlētēs | '–ēs'3 | athlētae | '–ae' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | neaniān | '–ān'1 | neaniās | '–ās' | psychēn | '–ēn' | psychās | '–ās' | athlētēn | '–ēn' | athlētās | '–ās' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | neaniae | '–ae' | neaniārum | '–ārum' | psychēs | '–ēs' | psychārum | '–ārum' | athlētae | '–ae' | athlētārum | '–ārum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | neaniae | '–ae' | neaniīs | '–īs' | psychae | '–ae' | psychīs | '–īs' | athlētae | '–ae' | athlētīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | neaniā | '–ā' | neaniīs | '–īs' | psychē | '–ē' | psychīs | '–īs' | athlētē | '–ē'2 | athlētīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
1—may be '''–am'''
2—may be '''–ā'''
3—may be '''–a'''
Sometimes, Greek nouns may be declined as if they were native, Latin nouns. For example, ''athlētēs'' may be ''athlēta.''
Peculiarities
★ The older genitive singular termination is an ''–ās''. This is often used with ''familia'' as in ''pater familiās'' and ''māter familiās''.
★ In poetry, the genitive singular ''–āī'' occurs. ''Aquae'' becomes ''aquāī''.
★ The genitive plural ending ''–um'' replaces ''–ārum''. This is actually a contraction. ''Puellum''.
★ Because first declension nouns and second declension nouns display an ''–īs'' in the dative and ablative plural, words like ''equus'' (horse) and ''equa'' (mare) will end up looking alike in these cases. However, if a distinction must be made, ''equīs'' for 'mares' would become ''equābus'' in the dative and ablative plural.
Second declension (o)
The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like ''equus, equī'' ("horse") and ''puer, puerī'' ("boy') and neuter nouns like ''castellum, castellī'' ("fort"), with a few feminine exceptions including names of
gemstones, trees, and some cities. In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the
stem and the
affix ''-us'', although some end in ''-er'', which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending ''-um''. However, every second-declension noun has the affix ''-ī'' attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is ''o''.
| '''campus, –ī''
field, plain m. | '''bellum, –ī''
war n. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | campus | '–us' | campī | '–ī' | bellum | '–um' | bella | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | campe | '–e' | campī | '–ī' | bellum | '–um' | bella | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | campum | '–um' | campōs | '–ōs' | bellum | '–um' | bella | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | campī | '–ī' | campōrum | '–ōrum' | bellī | '–ī' | bellōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | campō | '–ō' | campīs | '–īs' | bellō | '–ō' | bellīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | campo | '–o' | campīs | '–īs' | bellō | '–ō' | bellīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
Second declension R nouns
Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an ''–er'' or an ''–ir'' in the nominative singular. The genitive singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, ''socer, –erī'' keeps its E. Though, in ''magister, –trī'' drops its E. (The I in nouns that have ''–ir'' in the nominative singular is never dropped.) Below is an example of ''magister'' and ''armiger.''
| '''magister, –trī''
teacher, director m. | '''armiger, –erī''
armor-bearer m. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | magister | '–er' | magistrī | '–ī' | armiger | '–er' | armigerī | '–ī' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | magister | '–er' | magistrī | '–ī' | armiger | '–er' | armigerī | '–ī' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | magistrum | '–um' | magistrōs | '–ōs' | armigerum | '–um' | armigerōs | '–ōs' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | magistrī | '–ī' | magistrōrum | '–ōrum' | armigerī | '–ī' | armigerōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | magistrō | '–ō' | magistrīs | '–īs' | armigerō | '–ō' | armigerīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | magistrō | '–ō' | magistrīs | '–īs' | armigerō | '–ō' | armigerīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
Second declension Greek nouns
There are two types of masculine Greek nouns, and there is one type of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are only irregular in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from
Omicron Declension.
| '''barbitos, –ī''
lyre, zither m. | '''archigōs, –ō''
head, top m. | '''theātron, –ī''
theatre, amphitheatre n. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | barbitos | '–os' | barbitī | '–ī' | archigōs | '–ōs' | archigī | '–ī' | theātron | '–on' | theātra | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | barbite | '–e' | barbitī | '–ī' | archigōs | '–ōs' | archigī | '–ī' | theātron | '–on' | theātra | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | barbiton | '–on' | barbitōs | '–ōs' | archigōn | '–ōn' | archigōs | '–ōs' | theātron | '–on' | theātra | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | barbitī | '–ī' | barbitōrum | '–ōrum' | archigō | '–ō'1 | archigōrum | '–ōrum' | theātrī | '–ī' | theātrōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | barbitō | '–ō' | barbitīs | '–īs' | archigō | '–ō' | archigīs | '–īs' | theātrō | '–ō' | theātrīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | barbite | '–e' | barbitīs | '–īs' | archigō | '–ō' | archigīs | '–īs' | theātrō | '–ō' | theātrīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
1—may be '''–ī'''
Some Greek nouns may be declined as normal, Latin nouns. For example, ''theātron'' can appear as ''theātrum''.
Peculiarities
★ Nouns ending with ''–vus'', ''–quus'' and ''–vum'' may be declined in two ways. The following inflection resembles
Old Latin.
| '''servos, –ī''
slave, servant m. | '''equos, –ī''
horse m. | '''aevom, –ī''
eternity, age n. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Singular' | 'Singular' |
|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | servos | '–os' | equos | '–os' | aevom | '–om' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | serve | '–e' | eque | '–e' | aevom | '–om' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | servom | '–om' | equom | '–om' | aevom | '–om' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | servī | '–ī' | equī | '–ī' | aevī | '–ī' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | servō | '–ō' | equō | '–ō' | aevō | '–ō' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | servō | '–ō' | equō | '–ō' | aevō | '–ō' |
|---|---|
★ The plural of ''deus'' (god, deity) is also irregular.
::
| 'Nom.' | ''dī'' |
| 'Voc.' | ''dī'' |
| 'Acc.' | ''deōs'' |
| 'Gen.' | ''deōrum'' |
| 'Dat.' | ''dīs'' |
| 'Abl.' | ''dīs'' |
★ The vocative singular of ''deus'' is also irregular, and identical to the nominative: ''deus''.
Third declension (i)
The third declension is the largest group of nouns. These nouns may end in ''–a'',''–e'', ''–ī'', ''–ō'', ''–y'', ''–c'', ''–l'', ''–n'', ''–r'', ''–s'', ''–t'', or ''–x'' It consists of masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns of variable nominative cases and roots. The third declension includes ''flumen, fluminis'' neut. ("river"), ''flos, floris'' masc. ("flower"), and ''pax, pacis'' fem. ("peace"). Each noun has the affix ''-is'' as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, only masculine nouns end in an ''–or (amor)''. Only feminine nouns end in an ''–īx'' (phoenīx), and only neuter nouns end in an ''–us (onus)''. As in all declensions, some nouns defy these rules.
| '''prīnceps, –cipis''
leader, chief, prince m. | '''phoenīx, –īcis''
phoenix, fire-bird f. | '''cōnāmen, –inis''
effort, struggle n. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | prīnceps | '–ps' | prīncipēs | '–ēs' | phoenīx | '–īx' | phoenīcēs | '–ēs' | cōnāmen | '–en' | cōnāmina | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | prīnceps | '–ps' | prīncipēs | '–ēs' | phoenīx | '–īx' | phoenīcēs | '–ēs' | cōnāmen | '–en' | cōnāmina | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | prīncipem | '–em' | prīncipēs | '–ēs' | phoenīcem | '–em' | phoenīcēs | '–ēs' | cōnāmen | '–en'1 | cōnāmina | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | prīncipis | '–is' | prīncipum | '–um' | phoenīcis | '–is' | phoenīcum | '–um' | cōnāminis | '–is' | cōnāminum | '–um' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | prīncipī | '–ī' | prīncipibus | '–ibus' | phoenīcī | '–ī' | phoenīcibus | '–ibus' | cōnāminī | '–ī' | cōnāminibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | prīncipe | '–e' | prīncipibus | '–ibus' | phoenīce | '–e' | phoenīcibus | '–ibus' | cōnāmine | '–e' | cōnāminibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
1—The nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical. It should not be assumed that ''–en'' is always the appropriate ending, as it might appear above.
Third declension i-stem nouns
The third declension also has a set of nouns which are declined differently. They are called 'i-stems'. One can tell whether a word is an i-stem or not based on the following criteria.
★ Masculine & Feminine
★
★ 'Parisyllabic Rule:' Some masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive as they do in the nominative. For example: ''amnis, –is''
★
★ 'Double-Consonant Rule:' The rest of the masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have two consonants before the ''–is'' in the genitive singular. For example: ''pars, partis''
★ Neuter
★
★ 'Special Neuter Ending:' Neuter third declension i-stems have no rule. However, all of them end in either an ''–al'', ''–ar'' or ''–e.'' For example: ''animal, –ālis''
| '''amnis, –is'''
stream, torrent m. | '''pars, partis'''
part, piece f. | '''animal, –ālis'''
animal, living being n. |
|---|
| 'Parisyllabic Rule' | 'Double Consonant Rule' | 'Special Neuter Ending' | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | amnis | '–is' | amnēs | '–ēs' | pars | '–rs' | partēs | '–ēs' | animal | '–al' | animālia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | amnis | '–is' | amnēs | '–ēs' | pars | '–rs' | partēs | '–ēs' | animal | '–al' | animālia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | amnem | '–em'1 | amnēs | '–ēs'2 | partem | '–em'1 | partēs | '–ēs'2 | animal | '–al' | animālia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | amnis | '–is' | amnium | '–ium' | partis | '–is' | partium | '–ium' | animālis | '–is' | animālium | '–ium' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | amnī | '–ī' | amnibus | '–ibus' | partī | '–ī' | partibus | '–ibus' | animālī | '–ī' | animālibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | amne | '–e'3 | amnibus | '–ibus' | parte | '–e'3 | partibus | '–ibus' | animālī | '–ī' | animālibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
1—may end in ''–im''
2—may end in ''–īs''
3—may end in ''–ī''
Peculiarities
In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.
| Case |
|---|
'vis
force, power ''f.''' | 'sūs, suis
swine, pig, hog ''c.''' | 'bōs, bovis
ox, bullock ''c.''' | 'Iuppiter, Iovis
Jupiter ''m.''' |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' |
|---|
| 'Nominative' | vis | vīrēs | sūs | suēs | bōs | bovēs | Iuppiter |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | vis | vīrēs | sūs | suēs | bōs | bovēs | Iupitter |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | vim | vīrēs | suem | suēs | bovem | bovēs | Iovem |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | roboris1 | vīrium | suis | suum | bovis | bovum | Iovis |
|---|
| 'Dative' | robori1 | vīribus | suī | subus | bovī | bōbus | Iovī |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | vī | vīribus | sue | subus | bove | bōbus | Iove |
|---|
1—Borrowed from ''robur'', ''roboris'' (oak)
Fourth declension (u)
The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words like 'wave' (''fluctus, fluctūs'' masc.) and 'port' (''portus, portūs'' masc.) with a few feminine exceptions, including 'hand' (''manus, manūs'' fem.). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns like 'knee' (''genu, genūs'' neut.). Each noun has the affix ''-ūs'' as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is ''u''.
| '''portus, –ūs''
port, haven, harbor m. | '''cornū, –ūs''
horn, strength n. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | portus | '–us' | portūs | '–ūs' | cornū | '–ū' | cornua | '–ua' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | portus | '–us' | portūs | '–ūs' | cornū | '–ū' | cornua | '–ua' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | portum | '–um' | portūs | '–ūs' | cornū | '–ū' | cornua | '–ua' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | portūs | '–ūs' | portuum | '–uum' | cornūs | '–ūs' | cornuum | '–uum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | portuī | '–uī' | portibus | '–ibus' | cornū | '–ū' | cornibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | portū | '–ū' | portibus | '–ibus' | cornū | '–ū' | cornibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
In the dative and ablative plural, ''–ibus'' may be replaced with ''–ubus''. This is only so for a few nouns.
The declension of ''domus'' is irregular:
| '''domus, –ūs''
house, home m. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | domus | '–us' | domūs | '–ūs' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | domus | '–us' | domūs | '–ūs' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | domum | '–um' | domos | '–os' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | domūs | '–ūs' | domōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | domuī | '–uī' | domibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | domō | '–ō' | domibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Locative' | domi | '–i' | domibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
Fifth declension (e)
The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like 'affair, matter, thing' (''rēs, reī'' fem.) and 'day' (''diēs, diēī'' usually feminine, except on notable days when it is masculine). Each noun has either the affix ''-ēī'' or ''–eī'' as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.
| '''effigiēs, –ēī''
effigy, ideal f. | '''spēs, –eī''
hope, anticipation f. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | effigiēs | '–ēs' | effigiēs | '–ēs' | spēs | '–ēs' | spēs | '–ēs' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | effigiēs | '–ēs' | effigiēs | '–ēs' | spēs | '–ēs' | spēs | '–ēs' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | effigiem | '–em' | effigiēs | '–ēs' | spem | '–em' | spēs | '–ēs' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | effigiēī | '–ēī' | effigiērum | '–ērum' | speī | '–eī' | spērum | '–ērum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | effigiēī | '–ēī' | effigiēbus | '–ēbus' | speī | '–eī' | spēbus | '–ēbus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | effigiē | '–ē' | (effigiēbus) | '–ēbus' | spē | '–ē' | (spēbus) | '–ēbus' |
|---|---|
Note that nouns ending in ''iēs'' have long ''ēī'' in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ''ēs'' have short ''eī'' in these cases.
This declension class is the last to develop in Latin.
Pronoun declensions
Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:
★ the nominatives are often irregular
★ the dative singular ends in -ī: rather than -ae or -ō.
★ the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or -ī.
These differences identify the "pronominal" declension, and a few adjectives also follow this pattern.
Personal Pronouns
The first and second persons are irregular. They may only be masculine or feminine.
| 'First Person' | 'Second Person' |
|---|
'''ego, meī''
I m. and f.' | '''nōs, nostrum''
we m. and f.' | '''tū, tuī''
thou m. and f.' | '''vōs, vestrum''
ye m. and f.' |
|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|
| 'Nominative' | ego | nōs | tū | vōs |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | —— | —— | tū | vōs |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | mē | nōs | tē | vōs |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | meī | nostrum1 | tuī | vestrum1 |
|---|
| 'Dative' | mihi | nōbīs | tibi | vōbīs |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | mē | nōbīs | tē | vōbīs |
|---|
1—may be '''nostrī''' or '''vestrī'''
Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, ''cum'' would be added to the ablative form. Though, with personal pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), ''cum'' is added on to the end of the ablative form. For example: ''mēcum'', ''nōbīscum'', ''tēcum'', ''vōbīscum'' and ''quōcum'' (sometimes ''quīcum'').
| '''is, eī''
he, they m. | '''ea, eae''
she, they f. | '''id, ea''
it, they n. |
|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | is | eī, iī | ea | eae | id | ea |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | - | - | - | - | - | - |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | eum | eōs | eam | eās | id | ea |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | eius | eōrum | eius | eārum | eius | eōrum |
|---|
| 'Dative' | eī | eīs, iīs | eī | eīs, iīs | eī | eīs, iīs |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | eō | eīs, iīs | eā | eīs, iīs | eō | eīs, iīs |
|---|
The third person reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject whether it be singular or plural.
| | '''—, suī'''
himself, herself
itself, oneself, themselves |
|---|
| 'Nominative' | — |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | - |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | sē, sēsē |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | suī |
|---|
| 'Dative' | sibi |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | sē, sēsē |
|---|
Interrogative Pronouns
The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. It is best not to confuse them with the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural, though they may. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.
| '''quis''
who? m. and f. | '''quid''
what? n. only |
|---|
| 'Singular' |
|---|
| 'Nominative' | quis | quid |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | - | - |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | quem | quid |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | cūius | cūius |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | cui | cui |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | quō | quō |
|---|---|
Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives
| '''hic, haec, hōc''
this, this one | '''ille, illa, illud''
that, that one |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | hic | hī | haec | hae | hōc | haec | ille | illī | illa | illae | illud | illa |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | hunc | hōs | hanc | hās | hōc | haec | illum | illōs | illam | illās | illud | illa |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | hūius | hōrum | hūius | hārum | hūius | hōrum | illīus | illōrum | illīus | illārum | illīus | illōrum |
|---|
| 'Dative' | huic | hīs | huic | hīs | huic | hīs | illī | illīs | illī | illīs | illī | illīs |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | hōc | hīs | hāc | hīs | hōc | hīs | illō | illīs | illā | illīs | illō | illīs |
|---|
★ Another demonstrative pronoun ''iste'', ''ista'', ''istud'', which means 'that of yours', and the intensive pronoun ''ipse'', ''ipsa'', ''ipsum'' follow the preceding declension.
Relative pronouns
| '''quī, quae, quod''
who, which, that |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | quī | quī | quae | quae | quod | quae |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | quem | quōs | quam | quās | quod | quae |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | cūius | quōrum | cūius | quārum | cūius | quōrum |
|---|
| 'Dative' | cui | quibus | cui | quibus | cui | quibus |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | quō | quibus | quā | quibus | quō | quibus |
|---|
Indefinite Pronouns
Definite Pronouns
First and second declension adjectives
First and second declension are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in ''–us'' (although some end in ''-er'', see below), the feminine form ends in ''–a'', and the neuter form ends in ''–um''. Therefore, adjectives are given like ''altus'', ''alta'', ''altum''.
| '''altus, –a, –um''
high, long, tall |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | altus | '–us' | altī | '–ī' | alta | '–a' | altae | '–ae' | altum | '–um' | alta | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | alte | '–e' | altī | '–ī' | alta | '–a' | altae | '–ae' | altum | '–um' | alta | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | altum | '–um' | altōs | '–ōs' | altam | '–am' | altās | '–ās' | altum | '–um' | alta | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | altī | '–ī' | altōrum | '–ōrum' | altae | '–ae' | altārum | '–ārum' | altī | '–ī' | altōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | altō | '–ō' | altīs | '–īs' | altae | '–ae' | altīs | '–īs' | altō | '–ō' | altīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | altō | '–ō' | altīs | '–īs' | altā | '–ā' | altīs | '–īs' | altō | '–ō' | altīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
First and second declension ''–r'' adjectives
Some first and second declension adjectives' masculine form end in an ''–er''. As with second declension nouns –r nouns, some adjectives retain the ''e'' throughout inflection, and some omit it. ''Sacer'', ''sacra'', ''sacrum'' omits its ''e'' while ''miser'', ''misera'', ''miserum'' keeps it.
| '''miser, –era, –erum''
sad, poor, unhappy |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | miser | '–er' | miserī | '–ī' | misera | '–a' | miserae | '–ae' | miserum | '–um' | misera | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | miser | '–er' | miserī | '–ī' | misera | '–a' | miserae | '–ae' | miserum | '–um' | misera | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | miserum | '–um' | miserōs | '–ōs' | miseram | '–am' | miserās | '–ās' | miserum | '–um' | misera | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | miserī | '–ī' | miserōrum | '–ōrum' | miserae | '–ae' | miserārum | '–ārum' | miserī | '–ī' | miserōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | miserō | '–ō' | miserīs | '–īs' | miserae | '–ae' | miserīs | '–īs' | miserō | '–ō' | miserīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | miserō | '–ō' | miserīs | '–īs' | miserā | '–ā' | miserīs | '–īs' | miserō | '–ō' | miserīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| '''sacer, –cra, –crum''
sacred, holy |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | sacer | '–er' | sacrī | '–ī' | sacra | '–a' | sacrae | '–ae' | sacrum | '–um' | sacra | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | sacer | '–er' | sacrī | '–ī' | sacra | '–a' | sacrae | '–ae' | sacrum | '–um' | sacra | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | sacrum | '–um' | sacrōs | '–ōs' | sacram | '–am' | sacrās | '–ās' | sacrum | '–um' | sacra | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | sacrī | '–ī' | sacrōrum | '–ōrum' | sacrae | '–ae' | sacrārum | '–ārum' | sacrī | '–ī' | sacrōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | sacrō | '–ō' | sacrīs | '–īs' | sacrae | '–ae' | sacrīs | '–īs' | sacrō | '–ō' | sacrīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | sacrō | '–ō' | sacrīs | '–īs' | sacrā | '–ā' | sacrīs | '–īs' | sacrō | '–ō' | sacrīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
First and second ''–īus'' genitive adjectives
There are nine first and second declension adjectives that are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders. Here belong:
''alius, –a, –ud;'' (gen. sing. ''alterīus'' to avoid ''aliīus''); another
''ūllus, –a, –um;'' any
''uter, –tra, –trum;'' which (of two)
''solus, –a, –um;'' sole, alone
''alter, –era, –erum;'' the other (of two)
''nūllus, –a, –um;'' no, none (of any)
''neuter, –tra, –trum;'' neither (of two)
''tōtus, –a, –um;'' whole
''ūnus, –a, –um;'' one
| '''ūllus, –a, –um''
any |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | ūllus | '–us' | ūllī | '–ī' | ūlla | '–a' | ūllae | '–ae' | ūllum | '–um' | ūlla | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | ūlle | '–e' | ūllī | '–ī' | ūlla | '–a' | ūllae | '–ae' | ūllum | '–um' | ūlla | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | ūllum | '–um' | ūllōs | '–ōs' | ūllam | '–am' | ūllās | '–ās' | ūllum | '–um' | ūlla | '–a' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | ūllīus | '–īus' | ūllōrum | '–ōrum' | ūllīus | '–īus' | ūllārum | '–ārum' | ūllīus | '–īus' | ūllōrum | '–ōrum' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | ūllī | '–ī' | ūllīs | '–īs' | ūllī | '–ī' | ūllīs | '–īs' | ūllī | '–ī' | ūllīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | ūllō | '–ō' | ūllīs | '–īs' | ūllā | '–ā' | ūllīs | '–īs' | ūllō | '–ō' | ūllīs | '–īs' |
|---|---|
Third declension adjectives
Third declension adjectives are, of course, declined like third declension i-stem nouns.
Third declension adjectives with one ending
Third declension adjectives with one ending have single nominative ending for all genders. Like nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of inflection.
| '''atrōx, –ōcis''
terrible, mean, cruel |
|---|
| 'Masculine & Feminine' | 'Neuter' | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | atrōx | '–ōx' | atrōcēs | '–ēs' | atrōx | '–ōx' | atrōcia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | atrōx | '–ōx' | atrōcēs | '–ēs' | atrōx | '–ōx' | atrōcia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | atrōcem | '–em' | atrōcēs | '–ēs'1 | atrōx | '–ōx' | atrōcia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | atrōcis | '–is' | atrōcium | '–ium' | atrōcis | '–is' | atrōcium | '–ium' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | atrōcī | '–ī' | atrōcibus | '–ibus' | atrōcī | '–ī' | atrōcibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | atrōcī | '–ī'2 | atrōcibus | '–ibus' | atrōcī | '–ī'2 | atrōcibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
1—may end in '''–īs'''
2—may end in '''–e'''
Third declension adjectives with 2 endings
Third declension adjectives that have 2 endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is ''–is'', and the ending for the neuter is ''–e''. Because the sexed form ends in an ''–is'', we find the adjective genitive singular.
| '''agilis, –e''
nimble, swift |
|---|
| 'Masculine & Feminine' | 'Neuter' | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | agilis | '–is' | agilēs | '–ēs' | agile | '–e' | agilia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | agilis | '–is' | agilēs | '–ēs' | agile | '–e' | agilia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | agilem | '–em' | agilēs | '–ēs'1 | agile | '–e' | agilia | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | agilis | '–is' | agilium | '–ium' | agilis | '–is' | agilium | '–ium' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | agilī | '–ī' | agilibus | '–ibus' | agilī | '–ī' | agilibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | agilī | '–ī' | agilibus | '–ibus' | agilī | '–ī' | agilibus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
1—may end in '''–īs'''
Third declension adjectives with three endings
Third declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third and second declension –r nouns, the masculine ends in an ''–er''. The feminine ends in an ''–ris'', and the neuter ends in an ''–re''. With that information, we come upon the genitive singular needed for inflection, the feminine form.
| '''celer, –eris, –ere''
swift, rapid, brash |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | celer | '–er' | celerēs | '–ēs' | celeris | '–is' | celerēs | '–ēs' | celere | '–e' | celeria | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | celer | '–er' | celerēs | '–ēs' | celeris | '–is' | celerēs | '–ēs' | celere | '–e' | celeria | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | celerem | '–em' | celerēs | '–ēs'1 | celerem | '–em' | celerēs | '–ēs'1 | celere | '–e' | celeria | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | celeris | '–is' | celerium | '–ium' | celeris | '–is' | celerium | '–ium' | celeris | '–is' | celerium | '–ium' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | celerī | '–ī' | celeribus | '–ibus' | celerī | '–ī' | celeribus | '–ibus' | celerī | '–ī' | celeribus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | celerī | '–ī' | celeribus | '–ibus' | celerī | '–ī' | celeribus | '–ibus' | celerī | '–ī' | celeribus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| '''alacer, –cris, –cre''
lively, jovial, animated |
|---|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | alacer | '–er' | alacrēs | '–ēs' | alacris | '–is' | alacrēs | '–ēs' | alacre | '–e' | alacria | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | alacer | '–er' | alacrēs | '–ēs' | alacris | '–is' | alacrēs | '–ēs' | alacre | '–e' | alacria | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | alacrem | '–em' | alacrēs | '–ēs'1 | alacrem | '–em' | alacrēs | '–ēs'1 | alacre | '–e' | alacria | '–ia' |
|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | alacris | '–is' | alacrium | '–ium' | alacris | '–is' | alacrium | '–ium' | alacris | '–is' | alacrium | '–ium' |
|---|---|
| 'Dative' | alacrī | '–ī' | alacribus | '–ibus' | alacrī | '–ī' | alacribus | '–ibus' | alacrī | '–ī' | alacribus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | alacrī | '–ī' | alacribus | '–ibus' | alacrī | '–ī' | alacribus | '–ibus' | alacrī | '–ī' | alacribus | '–ibus' |
|---|---|
1—may end in '''–īs'''
Declension of numerals
''See also:
Roman numerals.''
All numerals, except ''ūnum'' (one), ''duo'' (two), ''tria'' (three), ''mīlia'' (thousand, sing. ''mīlle'') and ''ducentī'' (two-hundred) are indeclinable adjectives. ''Ūnus, ūna, ūnum'' is declined like a first and second declension adjective with an ''–īus'' in the genitive, and ''–ī'' in the dative. ''Duo'' is declined irregularly and ''tria'' is declined like a third declension adjective.
| | '''duo, duae, duo'''
two |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' |
|---|---|---|
| 'Plural' | ||
|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | duo | duae | duo |
|---|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | duo | duae | duo |
|---|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | duōs | duās | duo |
|---|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | duōrum | duārum | duōrum |
|---|---|---|
| 'Dative' | duōbus | duābus | duōbus |
|---|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | duōbus | duābus | duōbus |
|---|---|---|
It should be noted that ''ambō'', "both", is declined as ''duo'' is, though its ''o'' is long.
| | '''trēs, tria''' |
|---|
| 'Masculine & 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |
|---|---|---|
| 'Plural' | ||
|---|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | trēs | tria |
|---|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | trēs | tria |
|---|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | trēs, trīs | tria |
|---|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | trium | trium |
|---|---|---|
| 'Dative' | tribus | tribus |
|---|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | tribus | tribus |
|---|---|---|
The word, ''mīlle'', is singular, an adjective and indeclinable. However, its irregular plural, ''mīlia'' is used in the same way ''plūs'' is.
| | '''mīlia, mīlium''
(a) thousand n.' |
|---|
| 'Plural' | |
|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | mīlia | |
|---|---|---|
| 'Vocative' | mīlia | |
|---|---|---|
| 'Accusative' | mīlia | |
|---|---|---|
| 'Genitive' | mīlium | |
|---|---|---|
| 'Dative' | mīlibus | |
|---|---|---|
| 'Ablative' | mīlibus | |
|---|---|---|
As stated before, the rest of the numbers are indeclinable adjectives. They are also indeclinable as substantives.
| '1' | 'I' | ūnus, –a, –um | '11' | 'XI' | ūndecim | '21' | 'XXI' | ūnus et vigintī | '101' | 'CI' | centum et ūnus |
| '2' | 'II' | duo, –ae, –o | '12' | 'XII' | duodecim | '22' | 'XXII' | duō et vigintī | '200' | 'CC' | ducentī, –ae, –a |
| '3' | 'III' | trēs, –ia | '13' | 'XIII' | trēdecim | '30' | 'XXX' | trīgintā | '300' | 'CCC' | trecentī |
| '4' | 'IV' | quattuor | '14' | 'XIV' | quattuordecim | '40' | 'XL' | quadrāgintā | '400' | 'CD' | quadrigentī |
| '5' | 'V' | quīnque | '15' | 'XV' | quīndecim | '50' | 'L' | quīnquāgintā | '500' | 'D' | quīngentī |
| '6' | 'VI' | sex | '16' | 'XVI' | sēdecim | '60' | 'LX' | sexāgintā | '600' | 'DC' | sescentī |
| '7' | 'VII' | septem | '17' | 'XVII' | septendecim | '70' | 'LXX' | septuāgintā | '700' | 'DCC' | septingentī |
| '8' | 'VIII' | octō | '18' | 'XVIII' | duodēvigintī | '80' | 'LXXX' | octōgintā | '800' | 'DCCC' | octingentī |
| '9' | 'IX' | novem | '19' | 'XIX' | ūndēvigintī | '90' | 'XC' | nōnāgintā | '900' | 'CM' | nōngentī |
| '10' | 'X' | decem | '20' | 'XX' | vigintī | '100' | 'C' | centum | '1000' | 'M' | mīlle |
Declension of īdem
The adjective ''īdem'', ''eadem'', ''idem'' means 'same.' It is a variant of the third person pronouns which were declined earlier. Generally, they are formed by adding ''–dem'' to a declined third person pronouns. However, some forms have been changed to ease pronunciation.
| '''īdem, eadem, idem''
the same, same as |
|---|
| 'Masculine' | 'Feminine' | 'Neuter' | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' | 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
|---|---|
| 'Nominative' | īdem | eīdem,
iīdem | eadem | eaedem | idem | eadem |
|---|
| 'Vocative' | īdem | eīdem,
iīdem | eadem | eaedem | idem | eadem |
|---|
| 'Accusative' | eundem | eōsdem | eandem | eāsdem | idem | eadem |
|---|
| 'Genitive' | eiusdem | eōrundem | eiusdem | eārundem | eiusdem | eōrundem |
|---|
| 'Dative' | eīdem | eīsdem,
iīsdem | eīdem | eīsdem,
iīsdem | eīdem | eīsdem,
iīsdem |
|---|
| 'Ablative' | eōdem | eīsdem,
iīsdem | eādem | eīsdem,
iīsdem | eōdem | eīsdem,
iīsdem |
|---|
Comparison and superlative forms of adjectives
As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third declension nouns with one or two endings, the comparison is formed by adding an ''–ior'' for the masculine and feminine, and an ''–ius'' for the neuter to the base. The genitive for both are formed by adding an ''–iōris''. Therefore, they are declined like the third declension. However, they are not declined as i-stems are. Superlatives formed by adding an ''–issimus, –a, –um'' to the base. Now, we find that superlatives are declined like first and second declension adjectives.
| Adjective | 'Positive' | 'Comparative' | 'Superlative' |
|---|
| benīgnus, –a, –um ('kind, nice') | benīgnior, –ius | benīgnissimus, –a, –um |
| frīgidus, –a, –um ('cold, chilly') | frīgidior, –ius | frīgidissimus, –a, –um |
| calidus, –a, –um ('hot, fiery') | calidior, –ius | calidissimus, –a, –um |
| pūgnāx, –ācis ('pugnacious') | pūgnācior, –ius | pūgnācissimus, –a, –um |
| fortis, –e ('strong, robust') | fortior, –ius | fortissimus, –a, –um |
| aequālis, –e ('equal, even') | aequālior, –ius | aequālissimus, –a, –um |
Comparisons and superlatives of ''–er'' adjectives
Adjectives (in the third and first and second declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in ''–er'' have different forms. If the feminine and neuter forms drom the E, use that for the comparative form. The superlative is formed by adding an ''–rimus'' onto the masculine form.
| Adjective | 'Positive' | 'Comparative' | 'Superlative' |
|---|
| pulcher, –cra, –crum ('pretty, beautiful') | pulchrior, –ius | pulcherrimus, –a, –um |
| sacer, –cra, –crum ('sacred, holy') | sacrior, –ius | sacerrimus, –a, –um |
| tener, –era, –erum ('delicate, tender') | tenerior, –ius | tenerrimus, –a, –um |
| ācer, –cris, –cre ('sharp') | ācrior, –ius | ācerrimus, –a, –um |
| celēber, –bris, –bre ('celebrated, famous') | celēbrior, –ius | celēberrimus, –a, –um |
| celer, –eris, –ere ('quick, fast') | celerior, –ius | celerrimus, –a, –um |
Comparisons and superlatives of ''–lis'' adjectives
Some third declension adjectives with two endings in ''–lis'' in the sexed nominative singular have irregular superlative forms. It should be noted that the following are the only adjectives that have this unique form.
| Adjective | 'Positive' | 'Comparative' | 'Superlative' |
|---|
| facilis, –e ('easy') | facilior, –ius | facillimus, –a, –um |
| difficilis, –e ('hard, difficult') | difficilior, –ius | difficillimus, –a, –um |
| similis, –e ('similar, like') | similior, –ius | simillimus, –a, –um |
| dissimilis, –e ('unlike, dissimilar') | dissimilior, –ius | dissimillimus, –a, –um |
| humilis, –e ('low, humble') | humilior, –ius | humillimus, –a, –um |
Irregular comparisons and superlatives
As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparisons and superlatives.
| Adjective | 'Positive' | 'Comparative' | 'Superlative' |
|---|
| bonus, –a, –um ('good') | melior, –ius | optimus, –a, –um |
| malus, –a, –um ('bad, evil') | peior, –ius | pessimus, –a, –um |
| magnus, –a, –um ('great, large') | maior, –ius | maximus, –a, –um |
| parvus, –a, –um ('small, slight') | minor, –us | minimus, –a, –um |
| multus, –a, –um ('much, many') | plūs1 | plurimus, –a, –um |
| nēquam2 ('worthless') | nēquior, –ius | nēquissimus, –a, –um |
| posterus, –a, –um ('next, future') | posterior, –ius | postremus, –a, –um |
| superus, –a, –um ('above, upper') | superior, –ius | supremus, –a, –um |
| exterus, –a, –um ('outer, outward') | exterior, –ius | extremus, –a, –um |
| novus, –a, –um ('new, strange') | recentior, –ius | novissimus, –a, –um |
| senex, senis ('old, aged') | senior, –ius | —— |
| iuvenis, –is ('young, youthful') | iunior, –ius | —— |
★ 1: noun used with genitive to express more of something
★ 2: indeclinable
Adverbs and their comparisons and superlatives
To the relief of many Latin students, adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb.
First and second declension adjectives' adverbs
First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an ''–ē'' onto their bases.
| Adjective | Adverb |
|---|
| clārus, –a, –um ('clear, famous') | clārē ('clearly, famously') |
| validus, –a, –um ('strong, robust') | validē ('strongly, robustly') |
| īnfīrmus, –a, –um ('weak') | īnfīrmē ('weakly') |
| solidus, –a, –um ('complete, firm') | solidē ('completely, firmly') |
| integer, –gra, –grum ('whole, fresh') | integrē ('wholly, freshly') |
| līber, –era, –erum ('free') | līberē ('freely') |
Third declension adjectives' adverbs
Typically, third declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an ''–iter'' onto their bases. However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add an ''–er'' to their bases.
| Adjective | Adverb |
|---|
| prūdēns, –entis ('prudent') | prūdenter ('prudently') |
| audāx, –ācis ('bold') | audācter ('boldly') |
| docilis, –e ('docile') | dociliter ('docilely') |
| virilis, –e ('courageous, spirited') | viriliter ('courageously, spiritedly') |
| salūber, –bris, –bre ('wholesome') | salūbriter ('wholesomely') |
| pauper, –eris, –ere ('meager') | pauperiter ('meagerly') |
Adverbs' comparative and superlative forms
Adverbs' comparative forms are actually their neuter adjectives' comparative forms. Adverbs' superlative forms are made in the same way in which first and second declension adjectives' adverbs are made.
First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an ''–ē'' onto their bases.
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|
| clārē ('clearly, famously') | clārius | clārissimē |
| solidē ('completely, firmly') | solidius | solidissimē |
| līberē ('freely') | līberius | līberissimē |
| prudenter ('prudently') | prudentius | prudentissimē |
| dociliter ('docile') | docilius | docilissimē |
| salūbriter ('wholesomely') | salūberius | salūberissimē |
Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms
As so with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|
| bene ('well') | melius | optimē |
| male ('ill, badly') | peius | pessimē |
| māgnoperē ('greatly') | magis | maximē |
| multum ('much, a lot') | plūs | plūrimum |
| nōn multum ('little') | minus | minimē |
| nēquiter ('worthlessly') | nēquius | nēquissimē |
| saepe ('often') | saepius | saepissimē |
| mātūrē ('seasonably, betimes') | mātūrius | māturrimē |
| prope ('near') | propius | proximē |
| nūper ('recently') | —— | nūperrimē |
| —— | potius ('rather') | potissimē ('especially') |
| —— | prius ('before, previously') | prīmum1 ('first') |
| secus ('otherwise') | sētius ('less') | —— |
★ 1: may be prīmō
Peculiarities within declension
Irregularity in number
Some nouns are declined in the singular only. This is the case with:
★ 'Materials' such as ''aurum'' (gold) and ''aes'' (copper)
★ 'Abstract nouns' such as ''celeritās'' (speed) and ''scientia'' (knowledge)
★ 'Proper names' such as ''Iulius'' (Julius) and ''Clāra'' (Clara)
There are nouns that are only declined in the plural as well (
plurale tantum):
★ Many festivals, such as ''Saturnalia''
★ Words like ''castra'' (camp) and ''arma'' (arms)
★ A few geological places are plural such as ''Thēbae'' (Thebes).
Indeclinable nouns
'Indeclinable nouns' are neuter nouns which only occur in the nominative and accusative singular. There are only six such nouns:
★ ''fās'' — fate, divine law
★ ''īnstar'' — likeness
★ ''māne'' — morning (used in the ablative case as well)
★ ''nefās'' — sin, abomination
★ ''nihil'' — nothing, none
★ ''secus'' — sex, coitus
Heterogeneous nouns
Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.
★ A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine. However, their meanings remain the same.
★ Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural. They may also change in meaning.
:
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
| ''balneum'' n. bath | ''balneae'' f. bath-house |
| ''epulum'' n. feast, banquet | ''epulae'' f. feasts, banquets |
| ''frēnum'' n. bridle, curb | ''frēnī'' m. bridle, curb |
| ''iocus'' m. joke, jest | ''ioca'' n. jokes, jests |
| ''locus'' m. place, location | ''loca'' n. places, locations; ''locī'' region |
| ''rāstrum'' n. hoe, rake | ''rāstrī'' m. hoes, rakes |
Plurals with alternative meanings
The nouns below have a specific singular meaning, yet have a different plural meaning.
:
| 'Singular' | 'Plural' |
| ''aedēs, –is'' f. building, temple | ''aedēs, –ium'' rooms, house |
| ''auxilium, –ī'' n. help, aid | ''auxilia, –ōrum'' auxiliary troops |
| ''carcer, –eris'' m. prison, cell | ''carcerēs, –um'' starting-place of a chariot race |
| ''castrum, –ī'' n. fort, castle, fortress | ''castra, –ōrum'' milit. camp, encampment |
| ''cōpia, –ae'' f. plenty, much, abundance | ''cōpiae, –ārum'' troops |
| ''fīnis, –is'' m. end, boundary | ''fīnēs, –ium'' territory |
| ''fortūna, –ae'' f. luck, chance | ''fortūnae –ārum'' wealth |
| ''grātia, –ae'' f. charm, favor | ''grātiae, –ārum'' thanks |
| ''impedīmentum, –ī'' m. impediment, hindrance | ''impedīmenta, –ōrum'' baggage |
| ''littera, –ae'' f. letter (as in A, B, C, etc.) | ''litterae, –ārum'' epistle, scholarship, literature |
| ''mōs, mōris'' m. habit, inclination | ''mōrēs, –um'' m. morals, character |
| ''opera, –ae'' f. trouble, pains | ''operae, –ārum'' workmen |
| ''ops, opis'' f. the goddess Ops (pers.), help | ''opēs, –ium'' resources, wealth |
| ''pars, partis'' f. part, piece | ''partēs, –ium'' office, function |
| ''sāl, salis'' m. salt, sea water | ''salēs, –um'' wit, smarts |
References
★
New Latin Grammar, an eBook, originally written by
Charles Edwin Bennett at the
Project Gutenberg
See also
★
Latin conjugation
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