LIST OF LANGUAGE FAMILIES

Some major language families

★ Afro-Asiatic

★ Altaic (controversial)

★ Austro-Asiatic

★ Austronesian

★ Dravidian

★ Eskimo-Aleut

★ Indo-European

★ Na-Dené

★ Niger-Congo

★ Nilo-Saharan

★ Pama-Nyungan

★ Sino-Tibetan

★ Tai-Kadai

★ Uralic

Largest families by number of languages contained

According to the numbers in Ethnologue [2], the largest language families in terms of number of languages are:
#Niger-Congo (1,514 languages)
#Austronesian (1,268 languages)
#Trans-New Guinea (564 languages) (validity disputed)
#Indo-European (449 languages)
#Sino-Tibetan (403 languages)
#Afro-Asiatic (375 languages)
#Nilo-Saharan (204 languages)
#Pama-Nyungan (178 languages) (validity disputed)
#Oto-Manguean (174 languages) (number disputed; Lyle Campbell includes only 27)
#Austro-Asiatic (169 languages)
#Sepik-Ramu (100 languages) (validity disputed)
#Tai-Kadai (76 languages)
#Tupi (76 languages)
#Dravidian (73 languages)
#Mayan (69 languages)

Language families

In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known or suspected language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are ''not'' a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.
=== Africa and Southwest Asia ===

#Afro-Asiatic languages (formerly Hamito-Semitic)
#Niger-Congo languages (sometimes Niger-Kordofanian)
#Nilo-Saharan languages
#Khoe languages (part of the Khoisan proposal)
#Tuu languages (part of Khoisan)
#ǂHoan-Juu languages (part of Khoisan)
=== Europe and North, West and South Asia ===
#Indo-European languages
#Dravidian languages
#Northwest Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian)
#Northeast Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian)
#Hurro-Urartian languages (extinct, perhaps related to Northeast Caucasian)
#Kartvelian (South Caucasian)
#Altaic languages (usually considered to consist of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic branches, with Korean, Japonic, Ainu, and Nivkh sometimes included in more speculative versions)
#Uralic languages
#Yukaghir languages
#Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
#Yeniseian languages
#Andamanese languages (perhaps two families)
=== East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific ===
#Austro-Asiatic languages
#Austronesian languages
#Buyeo languages (also ''Puyŏ'', ''Fuyu'') [extinct, perhaps related to Japonic]
#Hmong-Mien languages
#Japonic languages
#Sino-Tibetan languages
#Tai-Kadai languages
=== Papuan languages===
#Baining languages
#Border languages
#Central Solomons languages
#East Bird's Head-Sentani languages
#Eastern Trans-Fly languages ''(one in Australia)''
#East Geelvink Bay languages
#Lakes Plain languages ''(upper Mamberamo River)''
#Left May-Kwomtari languages
#Mairasi languages
#Nimboran languages
#North Bougainville languages
#Piawi languages
#Ramu-Lower Sepik languages
#Senagi languages
#Sepik languages
#Skou languages
#South Bougainville languages
#South-Central Papuan languages
#Tor-Kwerba languages
#Torricelli languages
#West Papuan languages
#Yuat languages
===Australian Aboriginal languages===
#Bunaban languages
#Daly languages
#Limilngan languages
#Djeragan languages
#Nyulnyulan languages
#Wororan languages
#Mindi languages
#Arnhem Land languages (3 families and 2 isolates)
#Gunwinyguan languages
#Pama-Nyungan languages
=== North America ===

Distribution of language families and isolates north of Mexico at first contact.

Central & South America

#Aikaná ''(Brazil: Rondônia)
#Andoque ''(Colombia, Peru)''
#Aymara ''(Peru, Bolivia)''
#Betoi ''(Colombia)''
#Camsá ''(Colombia)''
#Canichana ''(Bolivia)''
#Cayubaba ''(Bolivia)''
#Cofán ''(Colombia, Ecuador)''
#Huaorani (a.k.a. Sabela, Waorani, Waodani) ''(Ecuador, Peru)''
#Irantxe ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)''
#Itonama ''(Bolivia)''
#Jotí ''(Venezuela)''
#Koayá ''(Brazil: Rondônia)
#Mapudungun ''(Chile, Argentina)''
#Movima ''(Bolivia)''
#Munichi ''(Peru)''
#Nambiquaran ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)''
#Omurano ''(Peru)''
#Otí ''(Brazil: São Paulo)'' [extinct]
#Pankararú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)''
#Puelche ''(Argentina,Chile)''
#Puinave ''(Colombia)''
#Puquina ''(Bolivia)'' [extinct]
#Quechua ''(Peru)''
#Taushiro ''(Peru)''
#Tequiraca ''(Peru)''
#Ticuna ''(Colombia, Peru, Brazil)''
#Warao ''(Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)''
#Yámana (a.k.a Yagan) ''(Chile)''
#Yuracare ''(Bolivia)''
#Yuri ''(Colombia, Brazil)''
#Yurumanguí ''(Colombia)''

North America

#Chimariko ''(US: California)''
#Chitimacha ''(US: Lousiania)''
#Coahuilteco ''(US: Texas, northeast Mexico)''
#Cuitlatec ''(Mexico: Guerrero)'' [extinct]
#Esselen ''(US: California)''
#Haida ''(Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)''
#Huave ''(Mexico: Oaxaca)''
#Karankawa ''(US: Texas)'' [extinct]
#Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) ''(US: California)''
#Keres ''(US: New Mexico)''
#Kootenai ''(Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)''
#Natchez ''(US: Mississippi, Louisiana)'' (sometimes linked to Muskogean)
#P'urhépecha (a.k.a. Tarascan) ''(Mexico: Michoacán)''
#Salinan ''(US: California)''
#Seri ''(Mexico: Sonora)''
#Siuslaw ''(US: Oregon)''
#Takelma ''(US: Oregon)''
#Timucua ''(US: Florida, Georgia)''
#Tonkawa ''(US: Texas)'' [extinct]
#Tunica ''(US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)''
#Washo ''(US: California, Nevada)''
#Yana ''(US: California)''
#Yuchi ''(US: Georgia, Oklahoma)''
#Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) ''(US: New Mexico)''

Australia

#Enindhilyagwa (AKA Andilyaugwa, Anindilyakwa)
#Laragiya
#Minkin [extinct; perhaps a member of Yiwaidjan or Tankic]
#Ngurmbur (perhaps a member of Macro-Pama-Nyungan)
#Tiwi (Melville and Bathurst Islands)

New Guinea

#Abinomn (Baso, Foia) ''(north Irian)''
#Anêm ''(New Britain)''
#Ata (Pele-Ata, Wasi) ''(New Britain)''
#Busa ''(Sandaun)''
#Isirawa ''(north Irian)''
#Kol ''(New Britain)''
#Kuot (Panaras) ''(New Ireland)''
#Massep
#Kwotari-Baibai (a.k.a. Pyu)
#Sulka ''(New Britain)''
#Taiap (Gapun) ''(Sepik)''
#Yalë (Nagatman) ''(Sandaun)''
#Yawa ''(Geelvink Bay)''
#Yélî Dnye'' (Yele) ''(Rennell Island)''
#Yuri (Karkar) ''(Sandaun)''

Asia

#Ainu language or languages ''(Japan, Russia)'' (like Arabic or Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity)
#Nivkh or Gilyak ''(Russia)'' (sometimes linked to Chukchi-Kamchatkan)
#Korean ''(North & South Korea, China, USA)'' (sometimes linked to Altaic; its dialect Jeju is often considered a different language)
#Kusunda ''(Nepal)'' (sometimes linked to Nihali or Indo-Pacific)
#Kalto or Nihali ''(India)'' (sometimes linked to Munda, Kusunda or Ainu)
#Burushaski ''(Pakistan, India)'' (sometimes linked to Yeniseian)
#Elamite ''(Iran)'' [extinct] (sometimes linked to Dravidian)
#Sumerian ''(Iraq)'' [extinct]
#Hattic ''(Turkey)'' [extinct] (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian)

Africa

#Hadza ''(Tanzania)''
#Sandawe ''(Tanzania)'' (may be related to Khoe)

Europe

#Basque ''(Spain, France)'' (related to extinct Aquitanian)
#Etruscan ''(Italy)'' [extinct; part of the poorly attested Tyrrhenian family]

Unclassified languages

Languages are considered unclassified either because, for one reason or another, little effort has been made to compare them with other languages, or, more commonly, because they are too poorly documented to permit reliable classification. Most such languages are extinct and most likely will never be known well enough to classify.

Europe

#Iberian ''(Spain)'' [extinct]
#Tartessian ''(Spain, Portugal)'' [extinct]

Africa

#Shabo
#Meroitic [extinct]

Asia

#Quti [extinct]
#Kaskian [extinct]
#Cimmerian [extinct]

Australia

#Tasmanian languages [extinct]

South America

#Baenan ''(Brazil)'' [extinct]
#Culle ''(Peru)'' [extinct]
#Cunza ''(Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)'' [extinct]
#Gamela ''(Brazil: Maranhão)'' [extinct]
#Gorgotoqui ''(Bolivia)'' [extinct]
#Huamoé ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Kukurá ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' [extinct]
#Natú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Tarairiú ''(Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)''
#Tuxá ''(Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Xokó ''(Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)'' [extinct]
#Xukurú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)'' [extinct]
#Yurumanguí ''(Colombia)'' [extinct]

North America

#Adai ''(US: Louisiana, Texas)'' [extinct]
#Alagüilac ''(Guatemala)''
#Aranama-Tamique ''(US: Texas)'' [extinct]
#Atakapa ''(US: Louisiana, Texas)'' [extinct]
#Beothuk ''(Canada: Newfoundland)'' [extinct]
#Calusa ''(US: Florida)'' [extinct]
#Cayuse ''(US: Oregon, Washington)'' [extinct]
#Cotoname ''(northeast Mexico; US: Texas)'' [extinct]
#Maratino ''(northeastern Mexico)'' [extinct]
#Naolan ''(Mexico: Tamaulipas)'' [extinct]
#Quinigua ''(northeast Mexico)'' [extinct]
#Solano ''(northeast Mexico; US: Texas)'' [extinct]

Mixed languages

Main articles: Mixed languages

★ Michif, a mixture of French and Cree, where the nouns and adjectives tend to be French (including agreement), and the polysynthetic verbs are entirely Cree. There are two simultaneous gender systems, French masculine/feminine as well as Cree animate/inanimate, and the Cree obviative (fourth person).

★ Mednyj Aleut, a mixture of Russian and Aleut, which retains Aleut verbs but has replaced most of the inflectional endings with their Russian equivalents.

★ Cappadocian Greek, comprising mostly Greek root words, but with many Turkish grammatical endings and Turkish vowel harmony, and no gender.

★ Mbugu or Ma’a: an inherited Cushitic vocabulary with a borrowed Bantu inflectional system.

★ Filipino, primarily Tagalog with notable influences of Spanish.
''Possible'' examples include:

★ Chiac, a mixture of Acadian French language and English language

★ Wutunhua (a mixture of Chinese and Tibetan).

★ Yeniche (a mixture of German, Yiddish, and Romani).

★ Jopará, mixture of Guaraní and Spanish, Spanish verbs are changed to match Guaraní phonology and conjugated following Guaraní patterns.

★ Riverense portuñol (Portuguese/Spanish).

★ Surzhyk (a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian).

Sign languages

Although deaf sign languages have emerged naturally in deaf communities alongside or among spoken languages, they are unrelated to spoken languages and have different grammatical structures at their core. A group of sign "languages" known as manually coded languages are more properly understood as signed ''modes'' of spoken languages, and therefore belong to the language family of the spoken language. One example of such a signed language is Warlpiri Sign Language, which belongs to the family of Ngarrkic languages.
There has been very little historical linguistic research on sign languages, and few attempts to determine genetic relationships between sign languages, other than simple comparison of lexical data and some discussion about whether certain sign languages are dialects of a language or languages of a family. Languages may be spread through migration, through the establishment of deaf schools (often by foreign-trained educators), or due to political domination.
Language contact is common, making clear family classifications difficult — it is often unclear whether lexical similarity is due to borrowing or a common parent language. Contact occurs between sign languages, between signed and spoken languages (Contact Sign), and between sign languages and gestural systems used by the broader community. One author has speculated that Adamorobe Sign Language may be related to the "gestural trade jargon used in the markets throughout West Africa", in vocabulary and areal features including prosody and phonetics.

★ Auslan, NZSL and BSL are usually considered to belong to a language family known as BANZSL.

★ Japanese Sign Language, Taiwanese Sign Language and Korean Sign Language are thought to be members of a Japanese Sign Language family.

★ There are a number of sign languages that emerged from French Sign Language (LSF), or were the result of language contact between local community sign languages and LSF. These include: French Sign Language, Quebec Sign Language, American Sign Language, Irish Sign Language, Russian Sign Language, Dutch Sign Language, Flemish Sign Language, Belgian-French Sign Language, Spanish Sign Language, Mexican Sign Language and others.
:
★ A subset of this group includes languages that have been heavily influenced by American Sign Language (ASL), or are regional varieties of ASL. Bolivian Sign Language is sometimes considered a dialect of ASL. Thai Sign Language is a mixed language derived from ASL and the native sign languages of Bangkok and Chiang Mai, and may be considered part of the ASL family. Others possibly influenced by ASL include Ugandan Sign Language, Kenyan Sign Language, Philippine Sign Language and Malaysian Sign Language.

★ Anecdotal evidence suggests that Finnish Sign Language, Swedish Sign Language and Norwegian Sign Language belong to a Scandinavian Sign Language family.

★ According to a SIL report, sign languages of Russia, Moldova and Ukraine share a high degree of lexical similarity and may be dialects of one language, or distinct related languages. The same report suggested a "cluster" of sign languages centered around Czech Sign Language, Hungarian Sign Language and Slovakian Sign Language. This group may also include Romanian, Bulgarian, and Polish sign languages.

★ Known isolates include Nicaraguan Sign Language, Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language, and Providence Island Sign Language.

★ Sign languages of Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Iraq (and possibly Saudi Arabia) may be part of a sprachbund, or may be one dialect of a larger Eastern Arabic Sign Language.

Proposed language stocks

★ Alarodian

★ Almosan (= Sapir's ''Algonkin-Wakashan'')

★ Almosan-Keresiouan

★ Algonkian-Gulf Algonquin, Algonkin

★ Amerind

★
★ Central Amerind

★ Andean

★ Aztec-Tanoan

★ Austric

★ Chibchan-Paezan

★ Coahuiltecan

★ Dene-Caucasian

★ Equatorial

★ Eurasiatic

★ Gulf

★ Hokan

★ Hokan-Siouan

★ Ibero-Caucasian

★ Indo-Pacific

★ Keresiouan

★ Kongo-Saharan

★ Macro-Carib

★ Macro-Ge

★ Macro-Khoisan

★ Macro-Mayan

★ Macro-Panoan

★ Macro-Siouan

★ Macro-Tucanoan

★ Mosan

★ Na-Dene (Sapir's)

★ Nostratic

★ Nostratic-Amerind

★ Penutian

★ Pontic

★ Thai-Kadai

★ Proto-World

★ Quechumaran

★ Ural-Altaic

★ Uralo-Siberian languages

★ Wappo-Yukian

External links

★ http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp

★ http://gebaren.ugent.be

★ http://www.elanguages.info - articles, products, & info about language learning online

★ Number of speakers by language

Bibliography

★ Boas, Franz. (1911). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).

★ Boas, Franz. (1922). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).

★ Boas, Franz. (1933). ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.

★ Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.

★ Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). ''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment''. Austin: University of Texas Press.

★ Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.

★ Goddard, Ives. (1999). ''Native languages and language families of North America'' (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.

★ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). ''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).

★ Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.

★ Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.

★ Ross, Malcom. (2005). ''Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages.'' In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, ''Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples [3]

★ Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). ''A guide to the world's languages''. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

★ Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). ''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).

★ Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). ''Classification and index of the world's languages''. New York: Elsevier.

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LIST OF LANGUAGE FAMILIES

Some major language families

Largest families by number of languages contained

Language families

Central & South America

North America

Australia

New Guinea

Asia

Africa

Europe

Unclassified languages

Europe

Africa

Asia

Australia

South America

North America

Mixed languages

Sign languages

Proposed language stocks

See also

External links

Bibliography

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