This 'list of vegetable oils' includes all vegetable oils that are extracted from plants by placing the relevant part of the plant under pressure to extract the oil. Although most plants contain some oil, only the oil from certain major oil crops
[1] complemented by a few dozen minor oil crops
[2] is widely used and traded.
Oils may also be extracted from plants by
dissolving parts of plants in water or another
solvent, and
distilling the oil, Oils extracted in this manner are called
essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed vegetable oils. Oils can also be made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil a process known as
maceration.
Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways, for example:
★ By source: most, but not all vegetable oils are extracted from the
fruits or
seeds of plants, and the oils may be classified by grouping oils from similar plants, such as "nut oils".
★ By use: oils from plants are used in
cooking, for
fuel, for
cosmetics, for
medical purposes, and for other industrial purposes.
The vegetable oils are grouped below in common classes of use.
Edible oils
Major oils
These oils account for a significant fraction of world-wide edible oil production. All are also used as fuel oils.
★ Coconut oil, a cooking oil, high in saturated fat, particularly used in baking and cosmetics.[3]
★ Corn oil, a common cooking oil with little odor or taste.[4]
★ Cottonseed oil, used in manufacturing potato chips and other snack foods. Very low in trans fats.[5]
★ Canola oil (a variety of rapeseed oil), one of the most widely used cooking oils, from a (trademarked) cultivar of rapeseed.[6]
★ Olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps.[7]
★ Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil. Also used to make biofuel.[8]
★
Peanut oil (Ground nut oil), a clear oil used for dressing
salads and, due to its high
smoke point, especially used for
frying.
[9]
★
Safflower oil, produced for export for over 50 years, first for use in
paint industry, now mostly as a cooking oil.
[10]
★
Sesame oil, cold pressed as light cooking oil, hot pressed for a darker and stronger flavor.
[11]
★
Soybean oil, produced as a byproduct of processing soy meal.
[12]
★
Sunflower oil, a common cooking oil, also used to make
biodiesel.
[13]
Nut oils
Nut oils are generally used in cooking, for their
flavor. They are also quite costly, because of the difficulty of extracting the oil.
★
Almond oil, used as an edible oil, but primarily in the manufacture of
pharmaceuticals.
[14]
★
Cashew oil, somewhat comparable to
olive oil. May have value for fighting
dental cavities.
[15]
★
Hazelnut oil, mainly used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its slight
astringent nature.
[16][17]
★
Macadamia oil, strongly flavored, contains no
trans-fats, and a good balance of
omega-3 and
omega-6.
[18]
★
Pecan oil, valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil.
[19]
★
Pistachio oil, strongly flavored oil, particularly for use in salads.
[20]
★
Walnut oil, used for its flavor, also used by
Renaissance painters in
oil paints.
[21][22]
Oils from melon and gourd seeds
Members of the
cucurbitaceae include
gourds,
melons,
pumpkins, and
squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food.
[2]
★
Bottle gourd oil, extracted from the seeds of the ''
Lagenaria siceraria'', widely grown in
tropical regions throughout the world. Used medicinally and as an edible oil.
[2]
★
Buffalo gourd oil, from the seeds of the ''
Cucurbita foetidissima'', a
vine with a rank odor, native to southwest
North America.
[25]
★
Pumpkin seed oil, a specialty cooking oil, produced in
Austria and
Slovenia. Poor tolerance for high temperatures.
[26]
★
Watermelon seed oil, pressed from the seeds of ''
Citrullus vulgaris''. Traditionally used in cooking in
West Africa.
[27]
Food supplements
A number of oils are used as
food supplements, for their nutrient content or medical effect.
★
Acai oil, from the fruit of several
species of the
Açaí Palm (''Euterpe''). Grown in the
Amazon region. Similar to
grape seed oil. They are used in
cosmetics and as a food supplement.
[28]
★
Blackcurrant seed oil, used as a food supplement, because of high content of
omega-3 and
omega-6 fatty acids.
[29]
★
Borage seed oil, similar to
blackcurrant seed oil, used primarily medicinally.
[30]
★
Evening primrose oil, used as a food supplement for its purported medicinal properties.
[31]
Other edible oils
★
Amaranth oil, high in
squalene and
unsaturated fatty acids, used in food and cosmetic industries.
[32]
★
Apricot oil, similar to, but much cheaper than
almond oil, which it resembles. Only obtained from certain
cultivars.
[33]
★
Argan oil, a food oil from
Morocco that has also attracted recent attention in
Europe.
[34]
★
Artichoke oil, extracted from the seeds of the ''
Cynara cardunculus''. Similar in use and composition to
safflower and
sunflower oil.
[ Plant Oils Used for Bio-diesel ]
★
Avocado oil, used a substitute for
olive oil.
[35] Also used in
cosmetics.
[36] Unusually high
smoke point of 510°F.
[37]
★
Babassu oil, similar to, and used as a substitute for,
coconut oil.
[38]
★
Ben oil, extracted from the seeds of the ''
Moringa oleifera''. High in
behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for
biofuel.
[39]
★
Borneo tallow nut oil, extracted from the fruit of species of genus ''
Shorea''. Used as a substitute for
cocoa butter, and to make
soap,
candles,
cosmetics and
medicines.
[2]
★
Carob pod oil (Algaroba oil), from
carob, used medicinally.
[41]
★
Cohune oil, from the ''
Attalea cohune'' (cohune palm), similar to
coconut oil in makeup and usage
[42]
★
Coriander seed oil, from
coriander seeds, used medicinally. Also used as a flavoring agent in pharmaceutical and food industries.
[43]
★
Dika oil, from ''
Irvingia gabonensis'' seeds, native to
West Africa. Used to make
margarine,
soap and
pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped.
[44][45]
★
False flax oil made of the seeds of ''
Camelina sativa'', available in
Russia as ryjhikovoye maslo (рыжиковое масло). Considered promising as a food or fuel oil.
[46]
★
Grape seed oil, suitable for cooking at high temperatures. Also used as a salad oil, and in cosmetics.
[47]
★
Hemp oil, a high quality food oil.
[48]
★
Kapok seed oil, used as an edible oil, and in soap production.
[49]
★
Lallemantia oil, from the seeds of ''
Lallemantia iberica'', discovered at
archeological sites in northern Greece.
[50]
★
Marula oil, extracted from the kernel of ''
Sclerocarya birrea''. Used in the food and cosmetic industry, it has strong
antioxidant and moisturising properties.
[51]
★
Meadowfoam seed oil, highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain
fatty acids. Competes with
rapeseed oil for industrial applications.
[52]
★
Mustard oil (pressed), used in India as a cooking oil. Also used as a
massage oil.
[53]
★
Okra seed oil (
Hibiscus seed oil), from the seed of the ''
Hibiscus esculentus''. Composed predominantly of
oleic and
linoleic acids.
[54] The greenish yellow edible oil has a pleasant taste and odor.
[55]
★
Perilla seed oil, high in
omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes, in skin care products and as a drying oil.
[56]
★
Pequi oil, extracted from the seeds of ''
Caryocar brasiliensis''. Used in
Brazil as a highly prized cooking oil.
[57]
★
Pine nut oil. An expensive food oil, from
pine nuts, used in salads and as a condiment.
[58]
★
Poppyseed oil, used for cooking,
[59] moisturizing skin,
[60] in paints and
varnishes,
[61] and in soaps.
★
Prune kernel oil, marketed as a gourmet cooking oil.
[62]
★
Quinoa oil, similar in composition and use to
corn oil.
[63]
★
Ramtil oil, pressed from the seeds of the one of several species of genus ''
Guizotia abyssinica'' (Niger pea) in
India and
Ethiopia. Used for both cooking and lighting.
[64]
★
Rice bran oil, suitable for high temperature cooking. Widely used in
Asia.
[65]
★
Tea oil (Camellia oil), widely used in southern
China as a cooking oil. Also used in making soaps,
hair oils and a variety of other products.
[66]
★
Thistle oil, pressed from the seeds of ''
Silybum marianum''. Relatively unstable. Also used for skin care products.
[67]
★
Wheat germ oil, used as a
food supplement, and for its "grainy" flavor. Also used medicinally. Highly unstable.
[68]
Oils used for biofuel
A number of the oils listed above are used for
biofuel (
biodiesel and
Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. A number of oils are used only as biofuel.
[69][70]
Although
diesel engines were invented, in part, with
vegetable oil in mind,
[71] diesel fuel is almost exclusively
petroleum-based. Rising oil prices have made
biodiesel more attractive. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on:
# Suitability as a fuel, based on
flash point, energy content,
viscosity,
combustion products and other factors
# Cost, based in part on
yield, effort required to grow and
harvest, and
post-harvest processing cost
Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel
The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes - all but
tung oil are edible - but have been considered for use as biofuel.
★
Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic
viscosity may be an issue.
[72]
★
Coconut oil (
copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts.
[73]
★
Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of
maize as a crop.
★
Cottonseed oil, shown in one study not to be cost effective when compared with standard diesel.
[74]
★
False flax oil, from ''
Camelina sativa'', used in Europe in
oil lamps until the 18th century.
★
Hemp oil, relatively low in emissions. High
flash point. Production is problematic in some countries because of its association with
marijuana.
[75]
★
Mustard oil, shown to be comparable to
Canola oil as a biofuel.
[76]
★
Palm oil, very popular for
biofuel, but the environmental impact from growing large quantities of
oil palms has recently called the use of
palm oil into question.
[77]
★
Peanut oil, used in one of the first demonstrations of the
Diesel engine in
1900.
[78]
★
Radish oil. Wild radish contains up to 48% oil, making it appealing as a fuel.
[79]
★
Rapeseed oil, the most common base oil used in Europe in biodiesel production.
★
Ramtil oil, used for lighting in
India.
[80]
★
Rice bran oil, appealing because of lower cost than many other vegetable oils. Widely grown in Asia.
[81]
★
Safflower oil, explored recently as a biofuel in
Montana.
[82]
★
Soybean oil, not economical as a fuel crop, but appealing as a byproduct of soybean crops for other uses.
★
Sunflower oil, suitable as a fuel, but not necessarily cost effective.
[83]
★
Tung oil, referenced in several lists of vegetable oils that are suitable for
biodiesel.
[84][85]
Inedible oils used only or primarily as biofuel
These oils are extracted from plants that are cultivated solely for producing oil-based biofuel.
[86] These, plus the
major oils described above, have received much more attention as fuel oils than other plant oils.
★
Algae oil, recently developed by
MIT scientist Isaac Berzin. Byproduct of a
smokestack emission reduction system.
[87][88]
★
Copaiba, an
oleoresin tapped from species of
genus ''
Copaifera''. Used in
Brazil as a major source of
biodiesel.
[89]
★
Honge oil, pioneered as a
biofuel by Udipi Shrinivasa in
Bangalore,
India.
[90]
★
Jatropha oil, widely used in
India as a fuel oil. Has attracted strong proponents for use as a
biofuel.
[91]
★
Jojoba oil, from the ''
Simmondsia chinensis'', a desert shrub.
[89]
★
Milk bush, popularized by
chemist Melvin Calvin in the
1950s. Researched in the
1980s by
Petrobras, the
Brazilian national petroleum company.
[89]
★
Petroleum nut oil, from the
Petroleum nut native to the
Philippines. The Philippine government once explored the use of the
petroleum nut as a biofuel.
[89]
Drying oils
Drying oils are
vegetable oils that dry to a hard finish at normal room temperature. Such oils are used as the basis of
oil paints, and in other paint and wood finishing applications. In addition to the oils listed here,
walnut,
sunflower and
safflower oil are also considered to be drying oils.
[95]
★
Dammar oil, from the ''
Canarium strictum'', used in
paint as a
drying agent.
[96] Can also be used as in
oil lamps.
[97]
★
Linseed oil, used in paints, also suitable for human consumption.
[98]
★
Poppyseed oil, similar in usage to
linseed oil but with better color stability.
★
Stillingia oil (also called ''Chinese vegetable tallow oil''), obtained by solvent from the seeds of ''
Sapium sebiferum''. Used as a
drying agent in
paints and
varnishes.
[99][2]
★
Tung oil, used in wood finishing.
[101]
★
Vernonia oil is produced from the seeds of the ''
Vernonia galamensis''. It is composed of 73-80%
vernolic acid, which can be used to make epoxies for manufacturing adhesives, varnishes and paints, and industrial coatings.
[102]
Other oils
A number of pressed vegetable oils are either not edible, or not used as an edible oil.
★
Amur cork tree fruit oil, pressed from the fruit of the ''
Phellodendron amurense'', used medicinally and as an
insecticide.
[103]
★
Apple seed oil, used in cosmetics for its hydrating properties.
[104]
★
Balanos oil, pressed from the seeds of ''
Balanites aegyptiaca'', was used in ancient
Egypt as the base for
perfumes.
★
Bladderpod oil, pressed from the seeds of ''
Lesquerella fendleri'', native to
North America. Rich in
lesquerolic acid, which is chemically similar to the
ricinoleic acid found in
castor oil. Many industrial uses. Possible substitute for
castor oil as it requires much less moisture than
castor beans.
[105]
★
Brucea javanica oil, extracted from the seeds of the ''
Brucea javanica''. Used medicinally.
[106]
★
Burdock oil (Bur oil) extracted from the
root of the
burdock. Used medicinally in scalp treatment.
[107]
★
Candlenut oil (
Kukui nut oil), produced in
Hawai'i, used primarily for skin care products.
[108]
★
Carrot seed oil (pressed), from
carrot seeds, used in skin care products.
[109][110]
★
Castor oil, with many industrial and medicinal uses.
Castor beans are also a source of the
toxin ricin.
[111]
★
Chaulmoogra oil, from the seeds of ''
Taraktogenos kurzii'', used for many centuries, internally and externally, to treat
leprosy.
[80] Also used to treat secondary
syphilis,
rheumatism,
scrofula, and in
phthisis.
[113]
★
Crambe oil, extracted from the seeds of the ''
Crambe abyssinica'', is used as an industrial lubricant, a corrosion inhibitor, and as an ingredient in the manufacture of synthetic rubber.
[114]
★
Cuphea oil, from a number of species of genre ''
Cuphea''. Of interest as sources of medium chain
triglycerides.
[115]
★
Jojoba oil, used in cosmetics as an alternative to
whale oil spermaceti.
[116]
★
Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of
cold pressed essential oils. Used medicinally, as an antiseptic, and in cosmetics.
[117]
★
Mango oil, pressed from the stones of the
mango fruit, is high in
stearic acid, and can be used for making
soap.
[118]
★
Mowrah butter, from the seeds of the ''
Madhuca latifolia'' and ''
Madhuca longifolia'', both native to
India. Crude Mowrah butter is used as a fat for spinning wool, for making candles and soap. The refined fat is used as an edible fat and
vegetable ghee in India.
★
Neem oil, used in cosmetics, for medicinal purposes, and as an
insecticide.
[119]
★
Ojon oil, extracted from the nut of the American palm (''
Elaeis oleifera''). Used as a skin and hair treatment. Oil extracted from both the nut and husk is also used as an edible oil in
Central and
South America.
[120]
★
Orange oil, like
lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-
Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods.
[121]
★
Palm oil, extracted from the kernel of the
palm fruit. High in
saturated fats. Popular in
West African and
Brazilian
cuisine.
[122]
★
Rosehip seed oil, used primarily in skin care products, particularly for aging or damaged skin. Produced in
Chile.
[123]
★
Sea buckthorn oil, derived from ''
Hippophae rhamnoides'', produced in northern
China, used primarily medicinally.
[124]
★
Shea butter, used primarily in skin care products.
[125]
★
Snowball seed oil (
Viburnum oil), from ''
Viburnum opulus'' seeds. High in
tocopherol,
carotinoides and
unsaturated fatty acids. Used medicinally.
[126]
★
Tall oil, produced as a byproduct of
wood pulp manufacture. A further byproduct called ''tall oil fatty acid'' (TOFA) is a cheap source of
oleic acid.
[127]
★
Tamanu oil, originates in
Tahiti, from the ''
Calophyllum tacamahaca'', used for skin care and medicinally.
[128]
★
Tonka bean oil (Cumaru oil), used for flavoring
tobacco and
snuff.
[129]
See also
★
Carrier oil discusses the use of (pressed) vegetable oils, mixed with
essential oils
★
Complementary and alternative medicine
★
Fatty acids discusses the components of most
vegetable oils
★
INCI explains naming conventions for oils used in
cosmetics and
soaps
★
list of macerated oils
General references
★
Bulk Oil Trading This site was very helpful in making this list more comprehensive.
★
Seed oil translations R.O. Adlof and G. Duchateau Lists
seed oil names in
English,
French,
German,
Italian,
Spanish,
Turkish and
Portuguese.
★
Hormel Foods: Other Oils and Fats Cooking Guide Lists
smoke points of various oils.
★
Vegetable Oil Yields and Characteristics Compiles useful information on vegetable oils from a number of sources.
★
Yokayo Biofuels: History of Biodiesel Gives a good overview of biodiesel and the oils that are used to produce it. Yokayo is a
California-based company that sells
biofuel.
★
Castor Oil The site contains a large set of resources on
castor oil and many other oils, particularly those used to make
biodiesel.
★
Database of Oil Yielding Plants Botanical Garden of Indian Republic (BGIR) List of about 300 plants that grow in
India, and that yield oil. Also gives common names in
languages spoken in
India.
★
Handbook of Tropical Plants, H.F. Macmillan, , , Herbdata New Zealand, , Old reference with basic information on an unusually large variety of plant oils.
Notes and references
1. Oil Crops Outlook, Economic Research Service, , , United States Department of Agriculture, , This publication is available via email subscription.
2. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
3. Coconut-Info.com
4. Bulk Oil: Corn oil
5. Bulk oil: Cottonseed oil
6. Canola Oil
7. Olive oil history
8. Bulk oil: Palm oil
9. Cook's encyclopedia: Peanut oil
10. Bulk oil: safflower
11. Bulk oil: sesame oil
12. Southeast Farm Press: World soybean consumption quickens
13. Bulk oil: Sunflower oil
14. Bulk oil: Almond oil
15. Cashew oil may conquer cavities, Science Service, Inc., , , Science News,
16. Cook's encyclopedia: Hazelnut oil
17. Bulk Carrier and Vegetable Oils: Hazelnut oil
18. Mac Nut Oil
19. Pecans as a health food J. Benton Storey
20. Virgin pistachio oil
21. What's cooking America? - Walnut oil
22. About.com: Is Walnut Oil a Good, Non-Toxic Medium for Oils?
23. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
24. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
25. Squashes, Gourds and Pumpkins
26. Pumpkin seed oil - information
27. Watermelon Seed Oil
28. Bulk oil: Acai oil
29. PDR Health: Blackcurrant Seed Oil
30. Truestar Health: Borage Oil
31. Truestar Health: Evening primrose oil
32. Nu World: Amaranth oil
33. Botanical.com: Apricit
34. Argan oil
35. Food reference: Avocado
36. Purdue New Crops: Avocado oil
37. See chart in smoke point
38. By the planet: What is Babassu Oil?
39. Beauty Secrets of the Ancient Egyptians
40. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
41. Carob@Everything2.com
42. Attalea cohune
43. Coriander Seed Oil
44. Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables, National Research Council, , , National Academic Press, ,
45. Preliminary evaluation of dika fat, a new tablet lubricant, Udeala OK, Onyechi JO, Agu SI, , , J Pharm Pharmacol,
46. False Flax Oil
47. All Spirit Fitness: Grape Seed Oil
48. Hemp oil: A true superfood?
49. Kapok seed oil
50. Lallemantia, an imported or introduced oil plant in Bronze Age northern Greece, Glynis Jones, Soultana M. Valamoti, , , Vegetation history and archaeobotany,
51. Marula Oil
PhytoTrade Africa is a vendor of marula oil and other natural products from Africa.
52. Meadowfoam Dan Burden
53. German Transport Information System: Mustard oil
54. Hibiscus seed oil compositions, R. Holser, G. Bost, , , AOCS,
55. Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics, Franklin W. Martin, , , Economic Botany,
56. Perilla: Botany, Uses and Genetic Resources David M. Brenner
57. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
58. Recipe Tips: Pine Seed Oil - Glossary of Kitchen and Food Terms
59. Raw oils: Poppy Seed oil
60. Statfold oils: Poppyseed oil
61. About.com: Oil Painting: Drying Oils or Mediums
62. Virgin prune kernel oil
63. Quinoa: A Potential New Oil Crop, Michael J. Koziol, , , New crops,
64. The Probert Encyclopedia: Ramtil Oil
65. California Rice Oil: Rice Bran Oil
66. Trends in new crops and new uses, John M. Ruter, , , , ,
67. Danish Food Composition Database: Thistle oil
68. Kitchen Dictionary: Wheat Germ
69. Ethanol and, to a lesser degree, methanol are the other major types of biofuel.
70. Castoroil.in: Bio fuels
71. Biodiesel America: Dr. Diesel's Invention
72. CastorOil.in: Castor Oil as Biodiesel & Biofuel
73. Coconut Oil as a Biofuel in Pacific Islands - Challenges & Opportunities
74. The Economic Circumstances of Cottonseed Oil as Biodiesel Ronald C. Griffin and Madhu Jamallamudi
75. Hemp car: Pollution: Petrol vs Hemp
76. Biodiesel from Yellow Mustard Oil Office of University Research and Education
77. Clearcutting the Last Wilderness, Wes Jackson, , , The Land Report,
78. ref
79. Australian Agronomy Society: Bio-diesel, farming for the future
80. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
81. A Study on Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification of Crude Rice Bran Oil for Biodiesel Production, Orchidea Rachmaniah, Yi-Hsu Ju, Shaik Ramjan Vali, Ismojowati Tjondronegoro, and Musfil A.S., , , World Energy Congress,
82. Safflower oil in your tank Jesus Fernandez
83. European Energy Crops InterNetwork: Sunflower crop feasibility for biodiesel production in Spain
84. Journey to Forever: Bio-diesel Yield
85. The Chemistry of Biodiesel
86. There are some plants that yield a commercial vegetable oil, that are also used to make other sorts of biofuel. Eucalyptus, for example, has been explored as a means of biomass for producing ethanol. These plants are not listed here.
87. Greenfuel Technologies Company developing Algae oil.
88. USA Today: Algae — like a breath mint for smokestacks
89.
90. Good News India: Honge Oil proves to be a good biodiesel
91. The Jatropha System
92.
93.
94.
95. The Encyclopedia of Painting Materials: Drying oils
96. Mast & Sail in Europe (Mentions the use of dammar oil in marine paints)
97. Database of Oil Yielding Plants (Mentions uses of dammar oil)
98. Flaxseed oil
99. Vegetable and Animal Oils and Fats
100. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
101. Finishing Solid Pine
102. Alternative Field Crops Manual, T.M. Teynor ''et all'', , , , 1992,
103. Amur cork tree Herbal Remedies sells herbal supplements and products.
104. ModelCo Colourbox Blush review
105. Chemistry of new industrial oilseed crops, R. Kleiman, , , Advances in new crops,
106. Study on the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of Brucea Javanica oil, Fa-Huan Ge, Hua-Ping Lei, , , Zhong Yao Cai,
107. Burdock oil for hair loss
108. Oils of Aloha
109. Carrot seeds are also used to obtain an essential oil with quite different properties than carrot seed pressed oil.
110. Cold Pressed Carrot Seed Oil (Egypt)
111. Castor Oil
112. Minor oil crops, B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman, , , FAO, ,
113. King's American Dispensatory, Harvey Wickes Felter, and John Uri Lloyd, , , , ,
114. Alternative Field Crops Manual, E.S. Oplinger ''et al'', , , , 1991,
115. Chemistry of New Industrial Oilseed Crops, Robert Kleiman, , , Advances in new crops,
116. International Jojoba Export Council: Glossary
117. FrontierCoop: Lemon Essential Oil
118. Fruits of Warm Climates, Julia F. Morton, , , , ,
119. What is neem oil?
120. Ojon Oil, , , , Footsteps,
121. Florida Chemical: Orange Oil Applications Florida Chemical sells citrus oils.
122. Cook's Encyclopedia: Palm oil/palm kernel oil
123. Aromatic: Rosehip Seed Oil
124. Sea buckthorn Subhuti Dharmananda
125. About.com: Shea butter
126. Limonnik: Viburnum oil Limonnik sells health related products from natural sources.
127. Tall Oil (Liquid Rosin)
128. Snowdrift Farm: Fixed Oil Glossary
129. Tropilab: Dipteryx Odorata - Tonka Bean
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