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EspañolLIST OF VOLCANOES IN INDONESIA
Major volcanoes in Indonesia
This is a 'list of volcanoes in Indonesia'. The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate.
Volcanoes in Indonesia are a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system. The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera, including its surrounding volcanic islands, and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippines volcanoes.
The most active volcanoes are Kelut and Merapi on Java island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelut has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI),[4] while Merapi has erupted more than 80 times.[5] The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior has named Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.
| Contents |
| Scope |
| Geographical groups |
| Sumatra |
| Sunda Strait and Java |
| Lesser Sunda Islands |
| Banda Sea |
| Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands |
| Halmahera |
| Major eruptions |
| See also |
| References |
| General references |
| Notes |
| External links |
Scope
There is no single standard definition for volcanoes. A volcano can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edificies or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.
The primary source of the list below is taken from the "Volcanoes of the World" book, compiled by two volcanologists Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert, in which active volcanoes in the past 10,000 years (Holocene) are listed.[6] Particularly for Indonesia, Simkin and Siebert used a catalogue of active volcanoes from the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior publication series. The Simkin and Siebert list is the most complete list of volcanoes in Indonesia, but the accuracy of the record varies from one region to another in terms of contemporary activities and fatalities in recent eruptions. Complementary sources for the latest volcanic data are taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, a governmental institution which is responsible for volcanic activities and geological hazard mitigation in Indonesia,[7] and some academic resources.
Geographical groups
Sumatra
The geography of Sumatra is dominated by a mountain range called Bukit Barisan (lit: "a row of hills"). The mountain range spans nearly 1,700 km (1,050 mi) from the north to the south of the island, and it was formed by movement of the Australian tectonic plate.[8] The plate moves with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm/year which has created major earthquakes on the western side of Sumatra including the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake.[9][10] The tectonic movement has been responsible not only for earthquakes, but also for the formulation of magma chambers beneath the island.
Only one of the 35 active volcanos, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km (62 miles) × 30 km (19 miles) Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present). The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).
| Name | Shape | Elevation | Last eruption (VEI) | Geolocation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Weh | stratovolcano | 617 | 2,024 | Pleistocene | |
| Seulawah Agam | stratovolcano | 1,810 | 5,938 | 1839 (2) | |
| Peuet Sague | complex volcano | 2,801 | 9,190 | 25 December 2000 (2) | |
| Geureudong | stratovolcano | 2,885 | 9,465 | 1937 | |
| Kembar | shield volcano | 2,245 | 7,365 | Pleistocene | |
|-
| Sibayak || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,212 || align="right"|7,257 || 1881 ||
|-
| Sinabung || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,460 || align="right"|8,071 || unknown ||
|-
| Toba || supervolcano || align="right"|2,157 || align="right"|7,077 || unknown ||
|-
| Helatoba-Tarutung || fumarole field || align="right"|1,100 || align="right"|3,609 || Pleistocene ||
|-
| Imun || unknown || align="right"|1,505 || align="right"|4,938 || unknown ||
|-
| Sibualbuali || stratovolcano || align="right"|1,819 || align="right"|5,968 || unknown ||
|-
| Lubukraya || stratovolcano || align="right"|1,862 || align="right"|6,109 || unknown ||
|-
| Sorikmarapi || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,145 || align="right"|7,037 || 1986 (1) ||
|-
| Talakmau || complex volcano || align="right"|2,919 || align="right"|9,577 || unknown ||
|-
| Sarik-Gajah || volcanic cone || align="right"|unknown || align="right"|unknown || unknown ||
|-
| Marapi || complex volcano || align="right"|2,891 || align="right"|9,485 || 5 August 2004 (2) ||
|-
| Tandikat || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,438 || align="right"|7 999 || 1924 (1) ||
|-
| Talang || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,597 || align="right"|8,520 || 12 April 2005 (2) ||
|-
| Kerinci || stratovolcano || align="right"|3,800 || align="right"|12,467 || 22 June 2004 (2) ||
|-
| Hutapanjang || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,021 || align="right"|6,631 || unknown ||
|-
| Sumbing || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,507 || align="right"|8,225 || 23 May 1921 (2) ||
|-
| Kunyit || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,151 || align="right"|7,057 || unknown ||
|-
| Pendan || unknown || align="right"|unknown || align="right"|unknown || unknown ||
|-
| Belirang-Beriti || compound || align="right"|1,958 || align="right"|6,424 || unknown ||
|-
| Bukit Daun || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,467 || align="right"|8,094 || unknown ||
|-
| Kaba || stratovolcano || align="right"|1,952 || align="right"|6,404 || 22 August 2000 (1) ||
|-
| Dempo || stratovolcano || align="right"|3,173 || align="right"|10,410 || October 1994 (1) ||
|-
| Patah || unknown || align="right"|2,817 || align="right"|9,242 || unknown ||
|-
| Bukit Lumut Balai || stratovolcano || align="right"|2,055 || align="right"|6,742 || unknown ||
|-
| Besar || stratovolcano || align="right"|1,899 || align="right"|6,230 || April 1940 (1) ||
|-
| Ranau || caldera || align="right"|1,881 || align="right"|6,171 || unknown ||
|-
| Sekincau Belirang || caldera || align="right"|1,719 || align="right"|5,640 || unknown ||
|-
| Suoh || caldera || align="right"|1,000 || align="right"|3,281 || 10 July 1933 (4) ||
|-
| Hulubelu || caldera || align="right"|1,040 || align="right"|3,412 || unknown ||
|-
| Rajabasa || stratovolcano || align="right"|1,281 || align="right"|4,202 || unknown ||
|}
Map showing the location of volcanoes and geological fault lines of Sumatra.
Mount Kerinci, the highest volcano on Sumatra.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[11]
Sunda Strait and Java
The Sunda Strait separates the islands of Sumatra and Java with the volcanic island Krakatau lying between them. Krakatau erupted violently in 1883, destroying two-thirds of the island and leaving a large caldera under the sea. This cataclysmic explosion was heard as far away as the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (approx. 3000 miles or 4800 km away). A new parasitic cone, called Anak Krakatau (or the child of Krakatau), rose from the sea at the center of the caldera in 1930.[12] The other Krakatau islets from the 1883 eruptions are known as Sertung, Panjang and Rakata.
Java is a relatively small island compared to Sumatra, but it has a higher concentration of active volcanoes. There are 45 active volcanoes on the island excluding 20 small craters and cones in the Dieng volcanic complex and the young cones in the Tengger caldera complex. Some volcanoes are grouped together in the list below because of their close location. Mount Merapi, Semeru and Kelut are the most active volcanoes in Java. Mount Semeru has been continuously erupting since 1967.[13] Mount Merapi has been named as one of the Decade Volcanoes since 1995.[14] Ijen has a unique colorful caldera lake which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir (pH<0.3).[15] There are sulfur mining activities at Ijen, where miners collect highly concentrated sulfur rocks by hand.
Satellite image of Anak Krakatau with fresh lava flows.
Tangkuban Perahu, taken from the city of Bandung.
Lightning strikes during the 1982 Galunggung eruption.
Mount Merapi, the most active volcano in Indonesia.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[17][18]
Lesser Sunda Islands
The Lesser Sunda Islands is a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf. Volcanoes in the area are formed because of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself.[19] Some volcanoes completely form an island, for instance, the Sangeang Api island. Mount Tambora, on Sumbawa island, erupted on 5 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI and is considered the most violent eruption in recorded history.
Mount Agung on Bali.
Eruption of Rinjani in 1984.
One of three different colored lakes of Kelimutu.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[20]
Banda Sea
The Banda Sea in the south of the Molucca archipelago includes a small group of islands. Three major tectonic plates beneath the sea, Eurasian, Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, have been converging since the Mesozoic epoch.[21] Volcanoes in the Banda Sea are mainly islands, but some are submarine volcanoes.
| Name | Shape | Elevation | Last eruption (VEI) | Geolocation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Emperor of China | submarine | -2,850 | -9,350 | unknown | |
| Nieuwerkerk | submarine | -2,285 | -7,500 | unknown | |
| Gunungapi Wetar | stratovolcano | 282 | 925 | 1699 (3) | |
| Wurlali | stratovolcano | 868 | 2,850 | 3 June 1892 (2) | |
| Teon | stratovolcano | 655 | 2,150 | 3 June 1904 (2) | |
| Nila | stratovolcano | 781 | 2,500 | 7 May 1968 (1) | |
| Serua | stratovolcano | 641 | 2,100 | 18 September 1921 (2) | |
| Manuk | stratovolcano | 282 | 925 | unknown | |
| Banda Api | caldera | 640 | 2,100 | 9 May 1988 (3) | |
Banda Api as seen from the Fort Belgica on Banda Island.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[22]
Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands
Four peninsulas dominate the shape of Sulawesi island (formerly known as Celebes). The central part is high mountaineous area, but mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern peninsula and continuously stretches to the north to Sangihe Islands. The Sangihe Islands marks the border with Philippines.
| Name | Shape | Elevation | Last eruption (VEI) | Geolocation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Colo | stratovolcano | 507 | 1,663 | 18 July 1983 (4) | |
| Ambang | complex volcano | 1,795 | 5,890 | 1845 ± 5 years | |
| Soputan | stratovolcano | 1,784 | 5,853 | 26 December 2006 (1) | |
| Sempu | caldera | 1,549 | 5,082 | unknown | |
| Tondano | caldera | 1,202 | 3,944 | unknown | |
| Lokon-Empung | stratovolcano | 1,580 | 5,184 | 23 September 2003 (3) | |
| Mahawu | stratovolcano | 1,324 | 4,344 | 16 November 1977 (0) | |
| Klabat | stratovolcano | 1,995 | 6,545 | unknown | |
| Tongkoko | stratovolcano | 1,149 | 3,770 | 1880 (1) | |
| Ruang | stratovolcano | 725 | 2,379 | 25 September 2002 (4) | |
| Karangetang | stratovolcano | 1,784 | 5,853 | 2 April 2005 (2) | |
| Banua Wuhu | submarine | -5 | -16.5 | 18 July 1919 (3) | |
| Awu | stratovolcano | 1,320 | 4,331 | 2 June 2004 (2) | |
| Submarine 1922 | submarine | -5,000 | -16,404 | unknown | |
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[23][24]
Halmahera
Halmahera island in the north of Molucca archipelago has been formed by the movement of three tectonic plates resulting in two intersecting mountain ranges, which form four rocky peninsulas separated by three deep bays. A volcanic arc stretches from north to south in the west side of Halmahera, some of which are volcanic islands, for instance, Gamalama and Tidore. Gamalama's island name is Ternate and it has been the center for spice trading since the Portuguese Empire opened a fort in 1512. Due to its location as the center for spice trading during the Age of Discovery, historical records of volcanic eruptions in Halmahera have been available as far back as the early sixteenth century.
| Name | Shape | Elevation | Last eruption (VEI) | Geolocation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Tarakan | pyroclastic cone | 318 | 1,043 | unknown | |
| Dukono | complex volcano | 1,335 | 4,380 | 13 August 1933 (3) | |
| Tobaru | unknown | 1,035 | 3,396 | unknown | |
| Ibu | stratovolcano | 1,325 | 4,347 | May 2005 (0) | |
| Gamkonora | stratovolcano | 1,635 | 5,364 | 9 July 2007 (?) | |
| Todoko-Ranu | caldera | 979 | 3,212 | unknown | |
| Jailolo | stratovolcano | 1,130 | 3,707 | unknown | |
| Hiri | stratovolcano | 630 | 2,067 | unknown | |
| Gamalama | stratovolcano | 1,715 | 5,627 | 31 July 2003 (2) | |
| Tidore | stratovolcano | 1,730 | 5,676 | unknown | |
| Mare | stratovolcano | 308 | 1,010 | unknown | |
| Moti | stratovolcano | 950 | 3,117 | unknown | |
| Makian | stratovolcano | 1,357 | 4,452 | 29 July 1988 (3) | |
| Tigalalu | stratovolcano | 422 | 1,385 | unknown | |
| Amasing | stratovolcano | 1,030 | 3,379 | unknown | |
| Bibinoi | stratovolcano | 900 | 2,953 | unknown | |
Depiction of Gamalama erupting in the early 1700's with a Portuguese fort shown.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[25]
Major eruptions
Below is a list of selected major eruptions of volcanoes in Indonesia, sorted chronologically by the starting date of the eruption. Only eruptions with scale 3 or above on VEI are given with known sources and fatalities, except if smaller scale eruptions resulted some fatalities.
| Eruption date | Volcano | Cessation date | VEI | Characteristics | Tsunami | Tephra volume | Fatality | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 20 Jan 1992 | Merapi | 19 Oct 2002 | 2 | cv,pf,ld,lm | no | N/A | 66 | |
| 10 Feb 1990 | Kelut | Mar 1990 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm | no | 0.13 km³ | 35 | [26] |
| 18 Jul 1983 | Colo | Dec 1983 | 4 | cv,pf,ph | no | N/A | 0 | |
| 5 Apr 1982 | Galunggung | 8 Jan 1983 | 4 | cv,pf,lf,lm | no | > 0.37 km³ | 68 | [27][28] |
| 6 Oct 1972 | Merapi | Mar 1985 | 2 | cv,pf,lf,ld,lm | no | 0.021 km³ | 29 | |
| 26 Apr 1966 | Kelut | 27 Apr 1966 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | no | 0.089 km³ | 212 | |
| 17 Mar 1963 | Agung | 27 Jan 1964 | 5 | cv,pf,lf,lm | no | 1 km³ | 1,148 | [29] |
| 31 Aug 1951 | Kelut | 31 Aug 1951 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | no | 0.2 km³ | 7 | |
| 25 Nov 1930 | Merapi | Sep 1931 | 3 | cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm | no | 0.0017 km³ | 1,369 | |
| 19 May 1919 | Kelut | 20 May 1919 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | no | 0.19 km³ | 5,110 | |
| 7 Jun 1892 | Awu | 12 Jun 1892 | 3 | cv,pf,lm | yes | N/A | 1,532 | [30] |
| 26 Aug 1883 | Krakatau | Feb 1884 | 6 | cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc | 15–42 m | 5–8.5 km³ | 36,600 | [31] |
| 15 Apr 1872 | Merapi | 21 Apr 1872 | 4 | cv,pf | no | 0.33 km³ | 200 | |
| 2 Mar 1856 | Awu | 17 Mar 1856 | 3 | cv,pf,lm | yes | 0.51±0.50 km³ | 2,806 | |
| 8 Oct 1822 | Galunggung | Dec 1822 | 5 | cv,pf,ld,lm | no | > 1 km³ | 4,011 | |
| 10 Apr 1815 | Mount Tambora | 15 Jul 1815 | 7 | cv,pf,cc | 1–2 m | 160 km³ | > 71,000 | [32] |
| 6 Aug 1812 | Awu | 8 Aug 1812 | 4 | cv,pf,lm | no | 0.55±0.50 km³ | 963 | |
| 12 Aug 1772 | Papandayan | 12 Aug 1772 | 3 | cv,ph | no | N/A | 2,957 | [33] |
| 4 Aug 1672 | Merapi | unknown | 3 | cv,pf,lm | no | N/A | 3,000 | |
| 1586 | Kelut | unknown | 5 | cf,cl,lm | no | > 1 km³ | 10,000 | |
| ≈ 74,000 BP | Toba | unknown | 8 | pf,lf,cc | likely | 2,800 km³ | near extinction of human population |
Fatality numbers are mostly taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, and Tanguy et al (1998).[34]
Notes: cv=central vent eruption, pf=pyroclastic flows, lf=lava flows, lm=lahar mudflows, cl=crater lake eruption, ph=phreatic eruption, ld=lava dome extrusion, cc=caldera collapse, se=submarine eruption, fa=fumarole activity, rf=radial fissure eruption.
See also
★ Indonesia
★ List of volcanoes
★ List of Indonesian earthquakes
References
General references
# ^
# ^ Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years, Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert, , , Geoscience Press, , ISBN 0945005121
Notes
1. Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, , Simon, Winchester, HarperCollins, , ISBN 0-06-621285-5
2. Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?, , C., Oppenheimer, Quarternary Science Reviews,
3. The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath, , Richard B., Stothers, Science,
4. Kelut Eruptive History
5. Merapi Eruptive History
6. Summary Data Criteria
7. Centre of Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation
8. The Sumatra subduction zone: A case for a locked fault zone extending into the mantle, Simoes, M., Avouac, J.P., Cattin, R., Henry, P., , , Journal of Geophysical Research,
9. Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, Subarya, C., Chlieh, M., Prawirodirdjo, L., Avouac, J.P., Bock, Y., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D.H., McCaffrey, R., , , Nature,
10. The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004, Lay, T., Kanamori, H., Ammon, C., Nettles, M., Ward, S., Aster, R., Beck, S., Bilek, S., Brudzinski, M., Butler, R., DeShon, H., Ekstrom, G., , , Science,
11. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Sumatra
12. Anak Krakatau and old Krakatau: a reply, , R. J., Whittaker, GeoJournal,
13. Semeru Weekly Reports
14. Decade Volcano Update, International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, , , Bulletin of Volcanology,
15. Natural Pollution Caused by the Extremely Acid Crater Lake Kawah Ijen, East Java, Indonesia, Ansje Löhr, Thom Bogaard, Alex Heikens, Martin Hendriks, Sri Sumarti, Manfred van Bergen, Kees C.A.M. van Gestel, Nico van Straalen, Pieter Vroonand, and Budi Widianarko, , , Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
16. Mount Merapi Erupts
17. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Krakatau
18. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Java
19. Exploration in the Lesser Sunda Islands, H. A. Brouwer, , , The Geographical Journal,
20. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Lesser Sunda Islands
21. A Neogene back-arc origin for the Banda Sea basins: geochemical and geochronological constraints from the Banda ridges (East Indonesia), Christian Honthaasa, Jean-Pierre Réhaulta, René C. Maurya, Hervé Bellona, Christophe Hémonda, Jacques-André Maloda, Jean-Jacques Cornéeb, Michel Villeneuveb, Joseph Cottena, Safri Burhanuddinc, Hervé Guilloud and Nicolas Arnaud, , , Tectonophysics,
22. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Banda Sea
23. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Sulawesi
24. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Sangihe Islands
25. Volcanoes of Indonesia - Halmahera
26. Large Holocene Eruptions
27. Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption, Katili, J.A. and Sudradjat, A., , , Volcanology Survei Indonesia,
28. Galunggung, Java, Indonesia
29. Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact, Michael R. Rampino and Stephen Self, , , Quaternary Research,
30. Awu's Eruptive History
31. Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption, B.H. Choi, E. Pelinovsky, K.O. Kim and J.S. Lee, , , Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences,
32. Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815, , Clive, Oppenheimer, Progress in Physical Geography,
33. The Deadliest Eruptions
34. Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database, J.-C. Tanguy, Ch. Ribière, A. Scarth and W.S. Tjetjep, , , Bulletin of Volcanology,
External links
★ Volcanological Survey Indonesia
★ Tectonics of Indonesia
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