'Los Angeles' (
IPA: in
English and in
Spanish) is the largest city in the state of
California by population and the
second most populous city in the United States.
[ Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places Over 100,000, Ranked by July 1, 2005 Population: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2005 ] Often abbreviated as 'L.A.', it is an
alpha world city having an estimated 2006 population of 3,849,378
[1] and spanning 469.1 square
miles (1,214.9 square kilometers). The
Los Angeles–Long Beach–Santa Ana metropolitan area is the estimated home to nearly 13 million people.
[2] The
Greater Los Angeles Area, encompassing a larger area of five counties, has an estimated population of over 17.7 million people.
[3] Los Angeles is the
county seat of
Los Angeles County and its inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos."
Los Angeles was founded in 1781 by
Spanish governor
Felipe de Neve as ''El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula'' (The Village of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of Porciuncula). It became a part of
Mexico in 1821 following independence from Spain and then a part of the United States in 1848 at the conclusion of the
Mexican-American War. It was
incorporated as a municipality on
April 4 1850—five months before California achieved
statehood.
Los Angeles is one of the world's centers of
culture,
science,
technology,
international trade, and
higher education, and is home to world-renowned institutions in a broad range of professional and cultural fields. The city and its immediate vicinity lead the world in producing popular entertainment—such as
motion picture,
television, and
recorded music—which forms the base of Los Angeles' international fame and global status.
History
Main articles: History of Los Angeles, California
The old city plaza, 1869.
The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the
Tongva (or Gabrieleños) and
Chumash Native American tribes thousands of years ago. The first Europeans arrived in 1542 under
Joao Cabrilho, a Portuguese explorer who claimed the area as the City of God for the
Spanish Empire but continued with his voyage and did not establish a settlement.
[4] The next contact would not come until 227 years later when
Gaspar de Portola, together with
Franciscan missionary
Juan Crespi, reached the present site of Los Angeles on
August 2 1769. Crespi noted that the site had the potential to be developed into a large settlement.
[5]
In 1771, Franciscan friar
Junipero Serra had the
Mission San Gabriel Arcangel built near
Whittier Narrows in what is now called
San Gabriel Valley.
[6] In 1777, the new
governor of California, Felipe de Neve, recommended to the
viceroy of
New Spain that the site previously recommended by Juan Crespi be developed into a ''pueblo''. The town was founded on
September 4,
1781 by a group of 44 settlers and was named "''El Pueblo de
Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del
Río de Porciúncula''," ("The Town of
Our Lady the Queen of the Angels on the
River Porciúncula").
[7] These settlers were of Filipino, Native American, African, and Spanish ancestry, with two-thirds being
mestizo or
mulatto; a majority of the settlers had at least partial African ancestry.
[8] The settlement remained a small ranch town for decades, but by 1820 the population had increased to about 650 residents, making it the largest civilian (non-mission) community in Spanish California. Today, the ''pueblo'' is commemorated in the historic district
Olvera Street, the oldest part of Los Angeles.
[9]
New Spain achieved its independence from the
Spanish Empire in 1821, and the ''pueblo'' continued as a part of
Mexico. Mexican rule ended during the
Mexican-American War, when Americans took control from the
Californios after a series of battles, culminating in the signing of the
Treaty of Cahuenga on
January 13,
1847. Later, with the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, the Mexican government formally ceded
Alta California and other territories to the
United States.
Railroads arrived when the
Southern Pacific completed its line to Los Angeles in 1876.
[10] Oil was discovered in 1892, and by 1923 Los Angeles was producing one-quarter of the world's petroleum.
[11] By 1900, the population had grown to more than 100,000 people
[12], which began to tax Los Angeles' water supply. The 1913 completion of the
Los Angeles aqueduct under the supervision of
William Mulholland assured the continued growth of the city. In 1915, Los Angeles began the
annexation of dozens of neighboring communities without water supplies of their own.
In the 1920s, the
motion picture and
aviation industries flocked to Los Angeles, eventually becoming cornerstones of the local economy. In 1932, with population surpassing one million
[13], hosted the
Summer Olympics. This period also saw the arrival of exiles from the increasing pre-war tension in
Europe, including
Thomas Mann,
Fritz Lang,
Bertolt Brecht,
Arnold Schoenberg, and
Lion Feuchtwanger.
World War II brought new growth and prosperity to the city, although many of its
Japanese-American residents were transported to
internment camps for the duration of the war. The post-war years saw an even greater boom as
urban sprawl expanded the city into the
San Fernando Valley.
[14]
Much like the rest of the United States, Los Angeles in the 1960s and early 1970s had to come to terms with changing race relations; the
Watts riots in 1965, the high school walkout by
Chicano students in 1968, and the 1970
Chicano Moratorium were representative of the racial strife present within the city. In 1969, Los Angeles became one of the birthplaces of the
Internet, as the first
ARPANET transmission was sent from
UCLA to
SRI in
Menlo Park.
[15]
Los Angeles was the first city where
AIDS was discovered in the 1980s and the center of many
glam metal bands of the decade. In 1984, it hosted the Summer Olympics
for the second time. The rest of the 1980s was plagued by an increase in
gang violence, as
crack cocaine became widely available. Racial tensions surfaced again in the 1990s with the
Rodney King controversy and the
large-scale riots that followed. In 1994, the
Northridge earthquake shook the city, causing 72 deaths.
[16] Also that year,
O.J. Simpson led police on a chase before surrendering to face murder charges in the deaths of his ex-wife and her friend. Despite propositions for the San Fernando Valley and
Hollywood sections to secede from the city in 2002, residents voted down secession by a wide margin.
[17] The 2000s has seen a rise in urban redevelopment and gentrification in various parts of the city, most notably
Echo Park and
Downtown.
[18]
Geography
Topography
Los Angeles has a total area of 498.3 square miles (1,290.6 km²), comprising 469.1 square miles (1,214.9 km²) of land and 29.2 square miles (75.7 km²) of water. This makes it the 14th largest city in land area in the United States.
[19] The city extends for 44 miles (71 km) longitudinally and for 29 miles (47 km) latitudinally. The perimeter of the city is 342 miles (550 km).
The highest point in Los Angeles is Mount Lukens, also called Sister Elsie Peak. Located at the far reaches of the northeastern
San Fernando Valley, it reaches a height of 5,080 ft (1,548 m). The major river is the
Los Angeles River, which begins in the
Canoga Park district of the city and is largely seasonal. The river is lined in concrete for almost its entire length as it flows through the city into nearby
Vernon on its way to the
Pacific Ocean.
Geology
Los Angeles is subject to
earthquakes due to its location in the
Pacific Ring of Fire. The geologic instability produces numerous fault lines both above and below ground, which altogether cause approximately 10,000 earthquakes every year.
[20] One of the major fault lines is the
San Andreas Fault. Located at the boundary between the
Pacific Plate and the
North American Plate, it is predicted to be the source of Southern California's next big earthquake.
[21] Major earthquakes to have hit the Los Angeles area include the 1994
Northridge earthquake, the 1987
Whittier Narrows earthquake, the
1971 San Fernando earthquake near
Sylmar, and the
1933 Long Beach earthquake. Nevertheless, all but a few quakes are of low intensity and are not felt.
[20] Parts of the city are also vulnerable to Pacific Ocean
tsunamis; harbor areas were damaged by waves from the
Great Chilean Earthquake in 1960.
[23]
Climate
The city is situated in a
Mediterranean climate zone (
Köppen climate classification ''Csb'' on the coast, ''Csa'' inland), experiencing mild, somewhat wet
winters and warm to hot
summers. Breezes from the
Pacific Ocean tend to keep the beach communities of the Los Angeles area cooler in summer and warmer in winter than those further inland; summer temperatures can sometimes be as much as 18 °F (10 °C) warmer in the inland communities compared to that of the coastal communities. Coastal areas also see a phenomenon known as the "marine layer," a dense cloud cover caused by the proximity of the ocean that helps keep the temperatures cooler throughout the year. When the marine layer becomes more common and pervades farther inland during the months of May and June, it is called
June Gloom.
[24]
Temperatures in the summer can get well over 90 °F (32 °C), but average summer daytime highs in downtown are 82 °F (27 °C), with overnight lows of 63 °F (17 °C). Winter daytime high temperatures will get up to around 65 °F (18 °C), on average, with overnight lows of 48 °F (10 °C) and during this season rain is common. The warmest month is August, followed by July and then September. This somewhat large case of
seasonal lag is caused by Los Angeles' proximity to the ocean and its latitude of 34° north.
The median temperature in January is 57 °F (13 °C) and 73 °F (22 °C) in August. The highest temperature recorded within city borders was 119.0 °F (48.33 °C) in
Woodland Hills on
July 22,
2006;
[25] the lowest temperature recorded was 18.0 °F (−7.8 °C) in 1989, in
Canoga Park. The highest temperature recorded for Downtown Los Angeles was 112.0 °F (44.4 °C) on
June 26 1990, and the lowest temperature recorded was 24.0 °F (−5.0 °C) on
January 9 1937.
Rain occurs mainly in the winter and spring months (February being the wettest month) with great annual variations in storm severity. Los Angeles averages 15
inches (38
cm) of precipitation per year.
Snow is extraordinarily rare in the city basin, but the mountainous slopes within city limits typically receive snow every year. The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 2.0 inches (5 cm) on January 15, 1932.
[26]
Flora
The Los Angeles area is rich in native plant species due in part because of a diversity in habitats, including beaches, wetlands, and mountains. The most prevalent botanical environment is
coastal sage scrub, which covers the hillsides in combustible
chaparral. Native plants include:
California poppy,
matilija poppy,
toyon,
coast live oak, and giant wild rye grass. Many of these native species, such as the
Los Angeles sunflower, have become so rare as to be considered endangered. Though it is not native to the area, the official flower of Los Angeles is
Strelitzia reginae.
[27]
Environmental issues
Due to geography, heavy reliance on
automobiles, and the Los Angeles/Long Beach port complex, Los Angeles suffers from
air pollution in the form of
smog. The
Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley are susceptible to
atmospheric inversion, which holds in the fumes from road vehicles, airplanes,
locomotives,
shipping, manufacturing, and other sources.
[28] Unlike other large cities that rely on rain to clear smog, Los Angeles only gets 15 inches (381 mm) of rain each year, allowing pollution to accumulate over multiple consecutive days. This has brought much attention from the state of California to mandate low emissions vehicles.
[29] As a result, pollution levels have dropped in recent decades. The number of Stage 1 smog alerts has declined from over 100 per year in the 1970s to almost zero in the new millennium. Despite improvement, the 2006 annual report of the
American Lung Association ranks the city as the most polluted in the country with short-term particle pollution and year-round particle pollution.
[30][31] In addition, the
groundwater is increasingly threatened by
MTBE from
gas stations and
perchlorate from
rocket fuel. With pollution still a significant problem, the city continues to take steps to improve air and water conditions.
[32][33]
Cityscape
Main articles: List of districts and neighborhoods of Los Angeles
The city is divided into many neighborhoods, many of which were towns that were annexed by the growing city. There are also several independent cities in and around Los Angeles, but they are popularly grouped with the city of Los Angeles, either due to being completely engulfed as enclaves by Los Angeles, or lying within its immediate vicinity. Generally, the city is divided into the following areas:
Downtown Los Angeles,
East Los Angeles,
South Central, the
Harbor Area,
Hollywood,
Wilshire, the
Westside, and the
San Fernando and
Crescenta Valleys.
Some well-known communities of Los Angeles include
Watts,
Venice Beach, the
Downtown Financial District,
Los Feliz,
Silver Lake,
Hollywood,
Hancock Park,
Koreatown,
Westwood and the more affluent areas of
Bel-Air,
Benedict Canyon,
Hollywood Hills,
Pacific Palisades, and
Brentwood.
Landmarks
Important landmarks in Los Angeles include
Chinatown,
Little Tokyo,
Disney Concert Hall,
Kodak Theater,
Griffith Observatory,
Getty Center,
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum,
Los Angeles County Museum of Art,
Grauman's Chinese Theater,
Hollywood sign,
Hollywood Boulevard,
Capitol Records Tower,
Los Angeles City Hall,
Hollywood Bowl,
Watts Towers,
Staples Center,
Dodger Stadium and
La Placita Olvera.
Culture
The people of Los Angeles are known as ''Angelenos''. Nighttime hot spots include places such as Downtown Los Angeles, Silver Lake, Hollywood, and
West Hollywood, which is the home of the world-famous
Sunset Strip.
Some well-known shopping areas are the Hollywood and Highland complex, the Beverly Center, Melrose Avenue, Robertson Boulevard, Rodeo Drive, 3rd St. Promenade in Santa Monica, The Grove, Westside Pavillion, The Promenade at Howard Hughes Center and Venice Boardwalk.
Sports
Los Angeles is the home of the
Los Angeles Dodgers of
Major League Baseball, the
Los Angeles Kings of the
National Hockey League, the
Los Angeles Clippers and
Los Angeles Lakers of the
National Basketball Association, the
Los Angeles Sparks of the
WNBA, the
Los Angeles Galaxy and
Club Deportivo Chivas USA (both of which are based in Carson, CA) of
Major League Soccer, the
Los Angeles Riptide of Major League Lacrosse, and the
Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League. Los Angeles is also home to the
USC Trojans and the
UCLA Bruins in the NCAA, both of which are Division I teams in the
Pacific 10 Conference.
UCLA has more NCAA national championships, all sports combined, than any other university in America.
USC has the third most NCAA national championships, all sports combined, in the United States. The
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and
Anaheim Ducks are in the Los Angeles markey and are both based in nearby
Anaheim.
At one time, the Los Angeles area boasted two
NFL teams, the Rams and the Raiders. Both left the region in the same year (1995), with the Rams moving to
St Louis and the Raiders heading back to
Oakland. Through the 2007-8 season there is no NFL franchise in the Los Angeles market, which is the second-largest city and
television market in the
United States[34]. Prior to 1995, the
Rams called Memorial Coliseum (1946-1979) and Anaheim Stadium (1980-1994) home;
[35] and the
Raiders played their home games at Memorial Coliseum from 1982 to 1994.
[36]
Since the franchise's departures the NFL as an organization, and individual NFL owners, have attempted to relocate a team to the city. Immediately following the 1995 NFL season,
Seattle Seahawks owner
Ken Behring went as far as packing up moving vans to start play in the
Rose Bowl under a new team name and logo for the 1996 season. The
State of Washington filed a law suit to successfully prevent the move.
[37] In 2003, then NFL Commissioner
Paul Tagliabue indicated L.A. would get a new expansion team, a thirty-third franchise, after the choice of Houston over L.A. in the 2002 league expansion round.
[38] When the
New Orleans Saints were displaced from the
Superdome by
Hurricane Katrina media outlets reported the NFL was planning to move the team to Los Angeles permanently.
[39] Despite these efforts, and the failure to build a new stadium for an NFL team, L.A. is still expected to return to the league through expansion or relocation.
Los Angeles has twice played host to the summer
Olympic Games, in
1932 and in
1984. When the tenth Olympic Games were hosted in 1932, the former 10th Street was renamed Olympic Blvd. The
1984 Summer Olympics inspired the creation of the
Los Angeles Marathon, which has been held every year in March since
1986. Super Bowls I and VII were also held in the city as well as soccer's international
World Cup in 1994. Los Angeles applied to represent the
USOC in international bidding for the
2016 Summer Olympics, but lost to
Chicago.
Beach volleyball and
windsurfing were both invented in the area (though predecessors of both were invented in some form by
Duke Kahanamoku in
Hawaii). Venice, also known as
Dogtown, is credited with being the birthplace of
skateboarding and the place where
Rollerblading first became popular. Area
beaches are popular with
parties,
sunbathers,
surfers,
swimmers and
barefooters, who have created their own
subcultures.
Staples Center, a premier venue for sports and entertainment, is home to five professional sports teams.
The Los Angeles area contains varied
topography, notably the
hills and
mountains rising around the
metropolis, making Los Angeles the only major city in the United States bisected by a
mountain range; four mountain ranges extend into city boundaries. Thousands of miles of
trails crisscross the city and neighboring areas, providing opportunities for
exercise and
wilderness access on
foot,
bike, or
horse. Across the county a great variety of outdoor activities are available, such as
skiing,
rock climbing,
gold panning,
hang gliding, and
windsurfing. Numerous outdoor clubs serve these sports, including the Angeles Chapter of the
Sierra Club, which leads over 4,000 outings annually in the area.
Los Angeles also boasts a number of sports venues, including the
Staples Center, a sports and entertainment complex that also hosts concerts and awards shows such as the Grammys. The Staples Center also serves as the home arena for the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers of the NBA, the Los Angeles Sparks of the WNBA, the Los Angeles Kings of the NHL and the Avengers of the
AFL.
Media
Main articles: Media in Los Angeles
The major daily newspaper in the area is ''
The Los Angeles Times''. ''
La Opinión'' is the city's major
Spanish-language paper. There are also a wide variety of smaller regional newspapers, alternative weeklies and magazines, including the ''
Daily News'' (which focuses coverage on the
San Fernando Valley), ''
L.A. Weekly'', ''
Los Angeles CityBeat'', ''Los Angeles'' magazine, ''Los Angeles Business Journal'', ''Los Angeles Daily Journal'' (legal industry paper), ''
The Hollywood Reporter'' and ''
Variety'' (entertainment industry papers), and ''
Los Angeles Downtown News''. In addition to the English- and Spanish-language papers, numerous local periodicals serve immigrant communities in their native languages, including Armenian, Korean, Persian, Russian and Japanese.
Many cities adjacent to Los Angeles also have their own daily newspapers whose coverage and availability overlaps into certain Los Angeles neighborhoods. Examples include ''
the Daily Breeze'' (serving the
South Bay), and ''
The Long Beach Press-Telegram''.
The Los Angeles metro area is served by a wide variety of local television stations, and is the second-largest media market in North America (behind
New York City and followed by
Chicago and
Toronto.)
Los Angeles is the only city to have all 7 VHF allocations possible assigned to it. Other markets have 7 VHF but they are split among different cities. For instance,
New York City has 7
VHF allocations but two of these are assigned to cities in New Jersey.
Los Angeles Times Headquarters
Los Angeles, along with
Washington, DC, is one of the few TV markets that did not have a VHF allocation reserved for
public broadcasting.
The major network television affiliates include
KABC-TV 7 (
ABC),
KCBS 2 (
CBS),
KNBC 4 (
NBC),
KTTV 11 (
FOX),
KTLA 5 (
The CW), and
KCOP 13 (
My Network TV), and
KPXN 30 (
i). There are also four
PBS stations in the area, including
KVCR 24,
KCET 28,
KOCE 50, and
KLCS 58.
World TV operates on two channels,
KNET-LP 25 and
KSFV-LP 6. There are also several Spanish-language television networks, including
KMEX 34 (
Univision), KFTR 46 (
Telefutura),
KVEA 52 (
Telemundo), and
KAZA 54 (
Azteca America). KTBN 40 (
Trinity Broadcasting Network), is a religious station in the area.
Several independent television stations also operate in the area, including
KCAL 9 (owned by
CBS Corporation),
KSCI 18 (focuses primarily on Asian language programming),
KWHY 22 (Spanish-language),
KNLA-LP 27 (Spanish-language),
KSMV-LP 33 (variety) — a low power relay of Ventura-based
KJLA 57 — KPAL-LP 38,
KXLA 44,
KDOC 56 (classic programming and local sports),
KJLA 57 (variety), and
KRCA 62 (Spanish-language).
Religion
Los Angeles is home to adherents of many religions, with
Roman Catholicism being the largest due to the high numbers of
Hispanic,
Filipino, and
Irish Americans.
The
Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles leads the largest archdiocese in the country.
[40] Roger Cardinal Mahony oversaw construction of the
Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, completed in 2002 at the north end of downtown.
The
Los Angeles California Temple, the second largest
temple operated by
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is on
Santa Monica Boulevard in the
Westwood district of Los Angeles. Dedicated in 1956, it was the first
Mormon temple built in California and it was the largest in the world when completed.
[41] The grounds includes a visitors' center open to the public, the ''Los Angeles Regional Family History Center'', also open to the public, and the headquarters for the Los Angeles
mission.
With 621,000 Jews in the metropolitan area (490,000 in city proper), the region has the
second largest population of Jews in the United States.
[42][http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/world-jewish-population.htm] Many synagogues of the Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist movements can be found throughout the city. Most are located in the
San Fernando Valley and West Los Angeles. The area in West LA around Fairfax and Pico Boulevards contains a large amount of Orthodox Jews. The Breed Street Shul in
East Los Angeles, built in 1923, was the largest synogogue west of Chicago in its early decades.
[43] (It is no longer a sacred space and is being converted to a museum and community center.
[44]
The
Azusa Street Revival (1906–1909) in Los Angeles was a key milestone in the history of the
Pentecostal movement, not long after Christian
Fundamentalism received its name and crucial promotion in Los Angeles. In 1909, the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A., now
Biola University) published and widely distributed a set of books called ''The Fundamentals'', which presented a defense of the traditional conservative interpretation of the
Bible. The term ''fundamentalism'' is derived from these books. Los Angeles is also a major hub of the
House Church Movement. Dr.
Gabe Veas is one of the leaders of this group, pastoring the house church network known as Authentic LA.
The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
In the 1920s,
Aimee Semple McPherson established a thriving evangelical ministry, with her
Angelus Temple in
Echo Park open to both black and white church members of the
Foursquare Church.
Billy Graham became a celebrity during a successful revival campaign in Los Angeles in 1949.
Herbert W. Armstrong's
Worldwide Church of God used to have its headquarters in nearby
Pasadena, now in
Glendale. Until his death in 2005, Dr.
Gene Scott was based near downtown. The
Metropolitan Community Church, a fellowship of Christian congregations with a focus on outreach to gays and lesbians, was started in Los Angeles in 1968 by Troy Perry.
Jack Chick, of "
Chick Tracts," was born in
Boyle Heights and lived in the area most of his life.
Because of Los Angeles' large multi-ethnic population, there are numerous organizations in the area representing a wide variety of faiths, including
Islam,
Buddhism,
Hinduism,
Zoroastrianism,
Sikhism,
Bahá'í, various
Eastern Orthodox Churches,
Sufism and others. Immigrants from
Asia for example, have formed a number of significant
Buddhist congregations making the city home to the biggest variety of Buddhists in the world. Los Angeles currently has the largest Buddhist population in the
United States. There are over 300 temples in Los Angeles. Los Angeles has been a destination for
Swamis and
Gurus since as early as 1900, including
Paramahansa Yogananda (1920). The
Self-Realization Fellowship is headquartered in
Hollywood and has a private park in
Pacific Palisades. Los Angeles is the home to a number of
Neopagans, as well as adherents of various other mystical religions. One wing of the
Theosophist movement is centered in Los Angeles, and another is in neighboring
Pasadena.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, considered a spiritual, rather than a religious leader,
[45] founded the
Transcendental Meditation movement in Los Angeles in the late 1950s. The
Kabbalah Centre is in the city. The
Church of Scientology has had a presence in Los Angeles since it opened
February 18,
1954, and it has several churches and museums in the area, most notably the
Celebrity Centre in Hollywood, in fact the world's largest community of Scientologists can be found in LA.
Economy
The economy of Los Angeles is driven by
international trade, entertainment (
television,
motion pictures,
recorded music),
aerospace, technology, petroleum, fashion, apparel, and tourism. Los Angeles is also the largest
manufacturing center in the United States.
[City-data.com] The contiguous ports of
Los Angeles and
Long Beach together comprise the most significant port in
North America and one of the most important ports in the world, and they are vital to trade within the
Pacific Rim.
Other significant industries include media production,
finance,
telecommunications,
law, health and
medicine, and transportation.
For many years, up until the mid-1990s, Los Angeles was home to many major financial institutions in the western United States, including
First Interstate Bank, which merged with
Wells-Fargo in 1996,
Great Western Bank, merged with
Washington Mutual in 1998, and
Security Pacific National Bank, which merged with
Bank of America in 1992. Los Angeles was also home to the
Pacific Stock Exchange until it closed in 2001.
The city is home to five major
Fortune 500 companies, including aerospace contractor
Northrop Grumman, energy company
Occidental Petroleum, healthcare provider
Health Net, homebuilding company
KB Home, and metals distributor
Reliance Steel & Aluminum. The
University of Southern California (USC) is the city's largest private sector employer.
[46]
Other companies headquartered in Los Angeles include
Twentieth Century Fox,
Latham & Watkins,
Univision, Metro Interactive, LLC,
Premier America,
CB Richard Ellis,
Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher LLP,
Guess?,
O'Melveny & Myers LLP, Paul, Hastings, Janofsky & Walker LLP,
Tokyopop,
The Jim Henson Company,
Paramount Pictures,
Robinsons-May,
Sunkist,
Fox Sports Net, Capital Group, 21st century Insurance, L.E.K. Consulting, and
The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf.
The metropolitan area contains the headquarters of even more companies, many of whom wish to escape the city's high taxes.
[47] For example, Los Angeles charges a gross receipts tax based on a percentage of business revenue, while many neighboring cities charge only small flat fees.
[48] The companies below benefit from their proximity to Los Angeles, while at the same time avoiding the city's taxes (and other problems). Some of the major companies headquartered in the cities of Los Angeles county are
Shakey's Pizza (
Alhambra),
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (
Beverly Hills),
City National Bank (Beverly Hills),
Hilton Hotels (Beverly Hills),
DiC Entertainment (
Burbank),
The Walt Disney Company (
Fortune 500 – Burbank),
Warner Bros. (Burbank),
Countrywide Financial Corporation (Fortune 500 –
Calabasas),
THQ (Calabasas),
Belkin (
Compton),
Sony Pictures Entertainment (parent of
Columbia Pictures, located in Culver City),
Computer Sciences Corporation (Fortune 500 –
El Segundo),
DirecTV (El Segundo),
Mattel (Fortune 500 – El Segundo),
Unocal (Fortune 500 – El Segundo),
DreamWorks SKG (
Glendale),
Sea Launch (
Long Beach),
ICANN (
Marina Del Rey),
Cunard Line (
Santa Clarita),
Princess Cruises (Santa Clarita),
Activision (
Santa Monica), and
RAND (Santa Monica). The L.A. area is also home to the U.S. headquarters of all but two of the major Asian automobile manufacturers (
Nissan North America is in the process of relocating its headquarters from
Gardena to the
Nashville area, and
Subaru's US. operations are based in
Cherry Hill,
New Jersey). Further, virtually all the world's automakers have design and/or tech centers in the L.A. region.
Downtown Los Angeles also is the home of the Los Angeles Convention Center which hosts many popular events including the annual Auto Show in November.
Demographics
2000 census
Today, Los Angeles has a population of over 4 million, making it the second largest city in the nation.
As of the
census of 2000, there were 3,694,820 people, 1,275,412 households, and 798,407 families residing in the city. The
population density was 7,876.8 people per square mile (3,041.3/km²). There were 1,337,706 housing units at an average density of 2,851.8 per square mile (1,101.1/km²).
The racial makeup of the city was 46.9%
White, 11.24%
African-American, 10.0%
Asian, 0.8%
Native American, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 25.9% from
other races, and 5.2% from two or more races. 46.5% of the population were
Hispanic or
Latino (of any race) and 29.7% were White, not of Latino/Hispanic origins.
[49]
42.2% spoke
English, 41.7%
Spanish, 2.4%
Korean, 2.3%
Tagalog, 1.7%
Armenian, 1.5%
Chinese (including
Cantonese and
Mandarin) and 1.3%
Persian as their
first language.
[50] Since the mid-80's Los Angeles has been a
minority-majority city. The city's non-Hispanic white population as of 2005 stands at 28.5% of the city's total population, down from 40% in 1990. As of 2005, the city is 48.9% Hispanic, 11.8% Asian, 10.5% Black.
According to the census, 33.5% of households had children under 18, 41.9% were
married couples, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 28.5% of households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The
average household size was 2.83 and the average family size 3.56.
The age distribution was: 26.6% under 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32. For every 100 females there were 99.4 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.
The median income for a household was $36,687, and for a family was $39,942. Males had a median income of $31,880, females $30,197. The
per capita income was $20,671. 22.1% of the population and 18.3% of families were below the
poverty line. 30.3% of those under the age of 18 and 12.6% of those aged 65 or older were below the poverty line.
It is also of interest to note that the post-1950 population increase did not take place exclusively in
suburban or peripheral locations. While many other American cities had experienced central area population declines, the opposite has been true here. The increase in the central area population is due, in part, to Los Angeles' large
immigrant population.
In the period from 1920 to 1960,
African Americans from the
Southeast U.S. arrived in Los Angeles and its population grew 15 times. Since 1990, the African-American population dropped as its
middle class relocated to the suburbs, notably the
Antelope Valley and
Inland Empire and Latinos have moved into the once predominantly African-American district of
South Los Angeles. African Americans still remain predominant in some portions of the city, including
Hyde Park,
Crenshaw District,
Leimert Park, and
Baldwin Hills (as well as neighboring
View Park-Windsor Hills and
Ladera Heights) which is considered to be one of the many wealthy majority-black neighborhoods in the United States.
National origins
City of Los Angeles
Population by year [7] |
|---|
| 1850 | 1,610 |
| 1860 | 4,385 |
| 1870 | 5,728 |
| 1880 | 11,183 |
| 1890 | 50,395 |
| 1900 | 102,479 |
| 1910 | 319,198 |
| 1920 | 576,673 |
| 1930 | 1,238,048 |
| 1940 | 1,504,277 |
| 1950 | 1,970,358 |
| 1960 | 2,479,015 |
| 1970 | 2,816,061 |
| 1980 | 2,966,850 |
| 1990 | 3,485,398 |
| 2000 | 3,694,820 |
| 2006 | 3,849,378 |
Of 2,182,114 U.S.-born people, 1,485,576 were born in
California, 663,746 were born in a different state of the United States, and 61,792 were born in a United States territory.
Of 1,512,720 foreign-born people, 100,252 were born in
Europe, 376,767 were born in
Asia, 64,730 were born in
Africa, 94,104 were born in
Caribbean/
Oceania, 996,996 were born in
Latin America, and 13,859 were born in
Canada. Of such foreign-born people, 569,771 entered between 1990 to March 2000. 509,841 are
naturalized citizens and 1,002,879 are not citizens.
By the next national census, Los Angeles is expected to have a Latino majority for the first time since 1850. The
Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) is the number one point of entry for immigrants in the country. The
Latino,
Asian American, and
Caribbean populations are growing particularly quickly — the Asian-American population is the largest of any U.S. city. Los Angeles hosts the largest populations of
Cambodians,
Iranians,
Armenians,
Belizeans,
Bulgarians,
Ethiopians,
Filipinos,
Guatemalans,
Hungarians,
Koreans,
Israelis,
Mexicans,
Salvadorans,
Thais, and
Pacific Islanders such as
Samoans in both the U.S. and world outside of their respective countries. Los Angeles is also home to the largest populations of
Japanese living in the United States, and has one of the largest
Native American populations in the country. The metropolitan area also is home to the second largest concentration of people of
Jewish descent (estimated at 621,000)
[ in the Americas, after New York City. Los Angeles also has the second largest Nicaraguan community in the US after Miami. It also host a sizable South Asian community. Los Angeles experienced minor waves of European immigration in the late 1800s and early 1900s and the city has sizeable populations of German, Greek, Irish, Italian, Romanian, Romani, Polish, Portuguese, Serb, Spanish, Lebanese, Croatian and Ukrainian descent.]
Los Angeles is home to people from more than 140 countries speaking 224 different languages.[51] Ethnic enclaves like Chinatown, Historic Filipinotown, Koreatown, Little Armenia, Little Ethiopia, Little Persia, Little India, Little Tokyo, and Thai Town provide examples of the polyglot character of Los Angeles.
Government
The city is governed by a mayor-council system. The current mayor is Antonio Villaraigosa. There are 15 city council districts. Other elected city officials include the City Attorney Rocky Delgadillo and the City Controller Laura Chick. The city attorney prosecutes misdemeanors within the city limits. The district attorney, elected by county voters, prosecutes misdemeanors in unincorporated areas and in 78 of the 88 cities in the county, as well as felonies throughout the county.
The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) polices the city of Los Angeles, but the city also maintains three specialized police agencies; The Office of Public Safety, within the General Services Department (which is responsible for security and law enforcement services at city facilities, including City Hall, city parks and libraries, the Los Angeles Zoo, and the Convention Center), the Port Police, within the Harbor Department (which is responsible for land, air and sea law enforcement services at the Port of Los Angeles), and the Airport Police, within the Los Angeles World Airports Department (which is responsible for law enforcement services at all four city-owned airports, including Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), Ontario International Airport (ONT), Palmdale Regional Airport (PMD), and Van Nuys Airport (VNY), the busiest general aviation airport in the country).
LAPL, Los Angeles Public Library System and the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) are among the largest such institutions in the country. LAUSD is the second largest school district in the United States; only the New York City Department of Education is larger. The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power provides service to city residents and businesses.
The city government has been perceived as inefficient and ineffective by residents of some areas, which led to an unsuccessful secession effort by the San Fernando Valley and Hollywood in 2002. The campaign to defeat secession was led by then Mayor James Hahn. The most common complaint is that the city administration in Downtown gives priority to high-density neighborhoods like Mid-City and Downtown at the expense of its far-flung suburban neighborhoods.
As the city does not have officially named districts, most areas and neighborhoods are known either by the names given by tract developers when first developed, or by the names of principal neighborhood streets, or by the names of the formerly independent communities that were annexed by the city.
Neighborhood councils
Voters created neighborhood councils in the Charter Reform of 1999. First proposed by City Council member Joel Wachs in 1996, they were designed to promote public participation in government and make it more responsive to local needs.
The councils cover districts which are not necessarily identical to the traditional neighborhoods of Los Angeles.
Almost ninety neighborhood councils (NCs) are certified and all "stakeholders" — meaning anyone who lives, works or owns property in a neighborhood — may vote for members of the councils' governing bodies. Some council bylaws allow other people with a stake in the community to cast ballots as well.
The councils are official government bodies and so their governing bodies and committees must abide by California's Brown Act, which governs the meetings of deliberative assemblies.
The first notable concern of the neighborhood councils collectively was the opposition by some of them in March 2004 to an 18% increase in water rates by the city's Department of Water and Power. This led the City Council to approve only a limited increase pending independent review. More recently, some of the councils petitioned the City Council in summer 2006 to allow them to introduce ideas for legislative action, but the City Council put off a decision.
The neighborhood councils have been allocated $50,000 each for administration, outreach and approved neighborhood projects.
Crime and safety
The
LAPD during
May Day 2006 in front of the new Caltrans District 7 Headquarters.
The COMPSTAT unit of the LAPD tabulates Part I offenses (violent and property crimes) committed in the city. Los Angeles has been experiencing significant decline in Part I offenses since the mid-1990s, and hit a record low in 2006, with 29,737 acts of violence, of which 481 were homicides. Criminality peaked in 1992 with 72,667 recorded acts of violence — of which 1,096 were homicides — and 245,129 recorded property crimes. The year before, Los Angeles recorded 1,025 murders. The distribution of homicides in the city is uneven with nearly half of them occurring in the four stations of the South Bureau of the LAPD encompassing South Los Angeles and the Harbor area. A further quarter occur in the areas covered by the Central Bureau which covers Downtown and its environs. Property crimes were over three times more common than violent crimes; 102,297 were recorded in 2006. The LAPD makes live crime statistics available on the LAPD crimestats and epolice web site.
Los Angeles has a total crime index lower than that of Chicago, and Atlanta as of 2006.
Current mayor Antonio Villaraigosa is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition,[52] an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino.
Many movies and songs about Los Angeles depict the notion that the city is home to a large number of gangsters and professional criminals. According to a May 2001 Drug Threat Assessment by the National Drug Intelligence Center, Los Angeles County is home to 152,000 gang members organized into 1,350 gangs.[53] Among the most infamous are the Crips, Bloods, 18th Street, Florencia 13, and MS-13 (Mara Salvatrucha). This has led to the city being referred to as the "Gang Capital of America."[54] Car chases happen more often than in most other major cities, with the city's complex freeway system allowing for lengthier pursuits. Other automobile-oriented crimes include car-to-car shootings, drive-by shootings, freeway shootings, hit-and-run accidents, and carjackings.
Education
Colleges and universities
There are three public universities that reside in the city limits: University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), California State University, Northridge (CSUN), and California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA)
Private schools in the city include the University of Southern California (USC), Antioch University's Los Angeles campus, Loyola Marymount University (LMU is also the parent university of Loyola Law School located in Los Angeles), Mount St. Mary's College, Occidental College ("Oxy"), Art Center College of Design (Art Center), Otis College of Art and Design (Otis), American InterContinental University, Alliant International University,Southwestern University School of Law, American Film Institute Conservatory, Charles R. Drew University, Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc), Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising's Los Angeles campus (FIDM), and Los Angeles Film School.
The community college system consists of nine campuses governed by the trustees of the Los Angeles Community College District: Los Angeles City College (LACC), Los Angeles Harbor College, Los Angeles Pierce College, Los Angeles Valley College (LAVC), Los Angeles Mission College, East Los Angeles College (ELAC), West Los Angeles College, Los Angeles Southwest College and Los Angeles Trade Technical College. Santa Monica College is operated by the Santa Monica Community College District.[55]
Schools and libraries
Los Angeles Unified School District serves almost all of the city of Los Angeles, as well as several surrounding communities.
It is the second-largest school district in the United States, with over 700,000 students. After Proposition 13 was approved in 1978, urban school districts had considerable trouble with funding. LAUSD has become known for its underfunded, overcrowded and poorly maintained campuses, although its Magnet schools have won countless awards and score with compared to the top private schools in the state. Wealthy and upper-middle-class parents placed their children in elite private schools, while many middle-class families left for suburban school districts beyond LAUSD boundaries. Since then, LAUSD has embarked on an aggressive school construction program to relieve overcrowding.
Several small sections of Los Angeles are in the Las Virgenes Unified School District.
Los Angeles County Office of Education[56] operates the Los Angeles County High School for the Arts.
The Los Angeles Public Library system operates 72 public libraries in the city.[57]
Transportation
Main articles: Transportation of Los Angeles
Los Angeles has one of the largest freeway systems in the world, with 27 intertwining freeways handling millions of commuters as they journey a daily collective migration of about 100 million miles (160 million km). Los Angeles is the most car-populated metropolis in the world with 1 registered automobile for every 1.8 people.[58]
Rail transport
The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority and other agencies operate an extensive system of bus lines, as well as subway and light rail lines. True to reputation, Los Angeles' mass transit system does not have high ridership, with 10.5% of commuters using public transit,[59] compared with 53% and 30% in New York and Chicago respectively. The rail system averages 276,900 trips a day, 0.4% of the 65 million commutes daily.[60] The city's subway is the ninth busiest subway system in the United States and its light rail system is the third most ridden in the country. 
Los Angeles subway at Wilshire/Vermont
An extension of the Gold line running from Downtown to East Los Angeles is currently under construction, and is expected to open in late 2009. A second extension from Pasadena into the foothills is being considered. Also in the works is the new Expo Line, which will run from Downtown into Culver City. Construction of this line is expected to finish in the summer of 2010. Plans of a second phase extending the line into Santa Monica are currently being assessed. Momentum is slowly building to extend the Purple line under Wilshire Boulevard all the way to the ocean in Santa Monica, extending the city's public transportation system further. Rail passenger service is provided by Amtrak and Metrolink from historic Union Station. Rail shipping is handled by Union Pacific Railroad and BNSF Railway.
Air Transport
LAX, the fifth busiest airport in the world.
The Los Angeles metropolitan area is served by more airports than any other city in the world.[62] There are six commercial airports and many more general-aviation airports. The main Los Angeles airport is Los Angeles International Airport . The fifth busiest commercial airport in the world and the third busiest in the United States, LAX handled over 61 million passengers and 2 million tons of cargo in 2006.[63]
Other major nearby commercial airports include:
★ LA/Ontario International Airport, owned by the city of Los Angeles; serves the Inland Empire.
★ Bob Hope Airport, formerly known as ''Burbank Airport''; serves the San Fernando Valley
★ Long Beach Municipal Airport, serves the Long Beach/Harbor area
★ John Wayne Airport of Orange County.
★ Palmdale Regional Airport is owned by the city of Los Angeles and serves the northern outlying communities of the Santa Clarita and Antelope Valleys.
Los Angeles also has the world's busiest general-aviation airport, Van Nuys Airport .[64]
Harbors
The Port of Los Angeles is located in San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro neighborhood, approximately 20 miles (30 km) south of Downtown. Also called '''Los Angeles Harbor''' and '''WORLDPORT LA''', the port complex occupies 7,500 acres (30 km²) of land and water along 43 miles (69 km) of waterfront. It adjoins the separate Port of Long Beach.
The sea ports of the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach together make up the ''Los Angeles – Long Beach Harbor'', the busiest and overall third-largest container shipping port in the world. There are also smaller, non-industrial harbors along L.A.'s coastline. Most of these like Redondo Beach and Marina del Rey are used primarily by sailboats and yachts.
The port includes four bridges: the Vincent Thomas Bridge, Henry Ford Bridge, Gerald Desmond Bridge, and Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge.
Sister Cities
A sign near City Hall points to the sister cities of Los Angeles.
Los Angeles has 25 sister cities:[65]
★ Athens, Greece (1984)
★ Auckland, New Zealand (1971)
★ Beirut, Lebanon (2006)
★ Berlin, Germany (1967)
★ Bordeaux, France (1964)
★ Busan, South Korea (1971)
★ Eilat, Israel (1959)
★ Giza, Egypt (1989)
★ Guangzhou, People's Republic of China (1981)
★ Ischia, Italy (2006)
★ Jakarta, Indonesia (1990)
★ Kaunas, Lithuania (1991)
★ Lusaka, Zambia (1968)
★ Makati City, Philippines (1992) | |
★ Mexico City, Mexico (1969)
★ Mumbai, India (1972)
★ Nagoya, Japan (1959)
★ Salvador, Brazil (1962)
★ San Salvador, El Salvador (2005)
★ Split, Croatia (1993)
★ St. Petersburg, Russia (1989)
★ Taipei, Taiwan (1979)
★ Tehran, Iran (1972)
★ Vancouver, Canada (1986)
★ Yerevan, Armenia (2007) |
See also
★ Large Cities Climate Leadership Group
★ Largest metropolitan areas in the Americas
★ United States cities by population
★ Los Angeles Now
★ Los Angeles Railway
★ Metropolis
★ Pacific Electric Railway
★ Toyon Canyon Landfill
References
1. U.S Census Bureau Estimates for Incorporated Places over 100,000
2. U.S. Census Bureau Estimates for Metropolitan Statistical Areas
3. U.S. Census Bureau Estimates for Combined Statistical Areas
4. Willard, C. D., ''The Herald's History of Los Angeles'' (Los Angeles: Kingsley-Barnes, 1901): 22.
5. Father Crespi in Los Angeles
6. After a 1776 flood, the mission was moved to its present site in San Gabriel
7. THe History of Los Angeles County
8. "Colonial records indicate that twenty-six of the forty-six original settlers of Los Angeles were of African or part-African ancestry." Mulroy, Kevin, et. al, eds, ''Seeking El Dorado:African Americans in California'' (Los Angeles: Autry Museum of Western Heritage, 2001): 79.
9. Acuna, Rodolfo, ''Anything But Mexican: Chicanos in Contemporary Los Angeles'' (New York: Verson, 1996): 22.
10. Mulholland, Catherine, ''William Mulholland and the Rise of Los Angeles'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000): 15.
11. The Story of Oil in California
12. Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1900
13. Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1930
14. Bruegmann, Robert, ''Sprawl: A Compact History'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005): 133.
15. Was L.A. really Internet's ground zero?
16. Reich, Kenneth, "Study Raises Northridge Quake Death Toll to 72," ''Los Angeles Times 20 December 1995: B1.
17. City of Los Angeles Secession Votes - 2002
18. Welcome to Gentrification City
19. Top 100 Cities with Largest Land Area
20. Earthquake Facts
21. San Andreas Fault Set for the Big One
22. Earthquake Facts
23. http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/web_tsus/19600522/damage.htm
24. [1]
25. Pool, Bob. "In Woodland Hills, It's Just Too Darn Hot." ''Los Angeles Times'' July 26, 2006, B1.
26. Burt, Christopher. ''Extreme Weather: A Guide and Record Book''. New York: Norton, 2004: 100.
27. San Diego Zoo
28. How Smog Forms in Los Angeles
29. [2]
30. People at Risk In 25 U.S. Cities Most Polluted by Short-Term Particle Pollution. American Lung Association. Retrieved on January 5, 2007.
31. People at Risk In 25 U.S. Cities Most Polluted by Year-Round Particle Pollution. American Lung Association. Retrieved on January 5, 2007.
32. Lopez, Theresa Adams. "Air Quality Programs at the Port of Los Angeles saw Refinement in 2005 with Focus on Ramping up in 2006." ''Port of Los Angeles (News Release).'' February 17, 2006.
33. Staff Writer. " Air Quality Protections Take Off." ''Environmental Defense.'' December 6, 2004.
34. [3]
35. [4]
36. Hong, Peter. "Few Tears Here." ''Los Angeles Times'' 29 June 1995: B1.
37. ''Business Wire''. "Seattle Seahawks owner Ken Behring announces move of NFL franchise" 2 Feb 1996. (Accessed 3 September 2007)
38. Satzman, Darrell. ''Los Angeles Business Journal''. "NFL's interest in returning to L.A. long on desire, far from reality - Up Front". 27 Jan 2003. (Accessed 3 September 2007)
39. Joyner, James. ''Outside the Beltway''. "NFL May Move Saints to Los Angeles". 27 Oct 2005. (Accessed 3 September 2007)
40. Pomfret, John. ''Cardinal Puts Church in Fight for Immigration Rights.'' Washington Post. April 2, 2006, accessed May 28, 2007
41. ""Los Angeles California Temple"
42. The Largest Jewish Communities
43. [http://www.isjm.org/jhr/no1/america.htm "Washington Symposium and Exhibition Highlight Restoration and Adaptive Reuse of American Synagogues" Jewish Heritage Report Issue No. 1 / March 1997
44. "Los Angeles’s Breed Street Shul Saved by Politicians" Jewish Heritage Report Vol. II, Nos. 1-2 / Spring-Summer 1998)
45. [5]
46. Evan George, Trojan Dollars: Study Finds USC Worth Billion Annually to L.A. County, ''Los Angeles Downtown News'', December 11, 2006.
47. EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES TO THE CITY’S GROSS RECEIPTS BUSINESS TAXUT Strategies, et. al. ''Competitiveness of City Taxes and Fees''. 1997.
48. ''Cometitiveness'' 22.
49. [U.S. Census] [6]
50. &ea=&order=r Modern Language Association Data Center Results of Los Angeles, California Modern Language Association
51. http://www.lacity.org/mayor/deliveringresults/results_cibasic.htm
52. Mayors Against Illegal Guns: Coalition Members
53. "California Central District Drug Threat Assessment : Overview." ''National Drug Intelligence Center.'' May, 2001.
54. Reuters news article
55. http://www.smc.edu/
56. [8]
57. [9]
58. [Los Angeles City Scene] [10].
59. http://www.census.gov/prod/1/gen/pio/cay961a2.pdf
60. ''The Search for the Holy Rail'' Rachel Dicarlo.
61. ''APTA TRANSIT RIDERSHIP REPORT'' APTA.
62. http://losangeles225.com/meet.htm
63. LAX Volume of air traffic
64. http://www.lawa.org/vny/
65. "Sister Cities of Los Angeles." Retrieved on February 22, 2007.
Further reading
★ Reyner Banham, ''Los Angeles: The Architecture of the Four Ecologies'', University of California Press, 1971.
★ Mike Davis, ''City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles'', Vintage Books, 1992
★ Torin Monahan, Los Angeles Studies: The Emergence of a Specialty Field, City & Society XIV (2): 155-184, 2002
★ Lynell George, ''No Crystal Stair: African Americans in the City of Angels'', Verso, 1992
★ Paul Glover, "Los Angeles: A History of the Future" 
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