العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
EspañolLOW-CARBON ECONOMY
A 'low-carbon economy' is an economy in which carbon dioxide emissions from the use of carbon based fuels (coal, oil and gas) are significantly reduced.[1] The full reduction appears later only in the 'zero-carbon' (also called post carbon) economy.
Such a low-carbon economy is reached by many states and proposed by organizations as a necessity in order to mitigate the effects of global warming. It might also be hastened by future shortages of oil (Hubbert peak theory) and the associated increases in energy prices that are predicted to come,[2] coupled with anticipated increases in energy demand as countries such as China and India continue their industrialization and coalization.[3]
[4]
A low-carbon economy might be brought about through the use of energy conservation measures, and the substitution of renewable energy sources for fossil fuels, including transport electrification. New technologies such as hydrogen power may also be involved, while carbon capture and storage and the controversial nuclear power might play a role as bridging technologies.[5] It is proposed that the right to emit carbon dioxide would be a traded in carbon emissions trading schemes,[6] and perhaps also be subject to carbon taxes.[7]
A low-carbon economy maybe judged to be not as economically efficient (cost-effective) as a high-carbon economy (especially when assessed using traditional-only cost effect analysis). However, higher energy efficiency of post carbon energies, nowadays existing technological improvements, increases in the costs of carbon fuels, and the introduction of carbon trading or carbon taxes may change this efficiency ratio to favor a low-carbon economy.
Foodstuffs should be produced as close as possible to the final consumers (preferably within walking/cycling distance). This will reduce the amount of carbon-based energy necessary to transport the foodstuffs. Consumers can also buy fresh food rather than processed food, since carbon-based energy might be used to process the food. Cooking presents another opportunity to conserve energy. Energy could be saved if farmers produced more foods that people would eat raw.
Also, most of the agricultural facilities in the developed world are mechanized due to rural electrification. Rural electrification has produced significant productivity gains, but it also uses a lot of energy. For this and other reasons (such as transport costs) in the low-carbon, rural areas will rely heavily on locally and renewably produced electricity.
Irrigation can be one of the main components of an agricultural facility's energy consumption. In parts of California it can be up to 90%. [8] In the low carbon economy, irrigation equipment will be maintained and continually updated and farms will use less irrigation water.
Different crops require different amounts of energy input. For example, glasshouse crops, irrigated crops, and orchards require a lot of energy to maintain, while row crops and field crops don’t need as much maintenance. Those glasshouse and irrigated crops that do exist will incorporate the following improvements: [9]
Glasshouse crops
• environmental control systems
• heat recovery using condensers
• heat storage using buffer tanks
• heat retention using thermal screens
• alternative fuels (e.g. waste wood)
• cogeneration (heat and power)
Irrigated arable crops
• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• variable speed drives on pumps
Livestock operations can also use a lot of energy depending on how they are run. Feed lots use animal feed made from corn, soybeans, and other crops. Energy must be expended to produce these crops, process and transport them. Free-range animals find their own vegetation to feed on. The farmer may expend energy to take care of that vegetation, but not nearly as much as the farmer who grows cereal and oil-seed crops.
Many livestock operations currently use a lot of energy to water their livestock. In the low-carbon economy, such operations will use more water conservation methods such as rainwater collection, water cisterns, etc and they will also pump/distribute that water with on-site renewable energy sources (most likely wind and solar).
Due to rural electrification, most agricultural facilities in the developed world use a lot of electricity. In a low-carbon economy, farms will be run and equipped to allow for greater energy efficiency. The dairy industry, for example, will incorporate the following changes: [9]
Irrigated Dairy
• heat recovery on milk vats
• variable speed drives on motors/pumps
• heat recovery from hot water wash
• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• biodigester with cogen (heat & power)
• vat wrap
• solar water heating
• ripple control
• ice bank
• chemical substitute for hot water wash
Fishing is quite energy intensive. Improvements such as heat recovery on refrigeration and trawl net technology will be common in the low-carbon economy. [9]
In the low-carbon economy, forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil based carbon reserves, too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations in order to maximize output. [12]
See main article: Gas flare
Flaring and venting of natural gas in oil wells is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Its contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year and now accounts for about 1/2 of one percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.[13]
The World Bank estimates that 100 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually, an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France, twice the annual gas consumption of Africa, three quarters of Russian gas exports, or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 20 days. This flaring is highly concentrated: 10 countries account for 75% of emissions, and twenty for 90%.[14] The largest flaring operations occur in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The leading contributors to gas flaring are (in declining order): Nigeria, Russia, Iran, Algeria, Mexico, Venezuela, Indonesia, and the United States.[15]
★ high efficiency electric motors
★ induction furnaces
★ heat recovery
★ variable speed drives
★ injection molding - replace hydraulic with electric servo motors
★ high efficiency motors
★ high efficiency fans
★ dehumidifier driers
★ variable speed drives
★ high efficiency motors
★ high efficiency boilers
★ heat recovery e.g. refrigeration
★ solar hot water for pre-heating
★ bio fuels e.g. tallow, wood
Retail operations in the low-carbon economy will have several new features. One will be high efficiency lighting such as compact fluorescent, halogen, and eventually LED light sources. Many retail stores will also feature roof-top solar panel arrays. These make sense because solar panels produce the most energy during the daytime and during the summer. These are the same times that electricity is the most expensive and also the same times that store use the most electricity. [16]
★ Driver training
★ Bio fuels (biodiesel, ethanol)
★ Fuel surcharges will be a more significant part of consumer costs
★ More vehicle hybridization, particularly through retrofit kits
★ Increased focus on fuel efficient vehicle shapes and configurations
★ More alternative and flex-fuel vehicles (based on local conditions and availability)
★ Less international trade of physical objects, despite more overall trade (as measure by value of goods)
★ More pipeline capacity for common fluid commodities such as water, ethanol, natural gas, petroleum, and hydrogen (in addition to gasoline and diesel).
★ Greater use of marine and rail transport, less use of air and truck transport.
See [17][18][19]
Internationally, the most prominent early step in the direction of a low-carbon economy was the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force on February 16, 2005, under which most industrialized countries committed to reduce their carbon emissions.[20][21] Importantly, all member nations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development except Australia and the United States have ratified the protocol.
Although the Australian Government has been reluctant implement any emission reduction targets or regulations the voluntary market has seen the development of carbon neutral businesses. Many Australian carbon offset companies offer carbon neutrality of businesses based on life cycle impact assessments of varying detail. One offset provider,the Carbon Reduction Institute, has produced a Low Carbon Directory, to promote a low carbon economy in Australia.
Main articles: Renewable energy in Iceland
By exploiting geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland provides over 70% of the nation's primary energy needs since 1999, and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity.[22] As a result Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States[23] despite using more primary energy per capita.[24] Iceland expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.
In the United Kingdom, a draft Climate Change Bill outlining a framework for the transition to a low-carbon economy was published on March 13 2007. This legislation would require a 60% cut in the UK's carbon emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels), with an intermediate target of between 26% and 32% by 2020.[25] If approved, the UK would likely become the first country to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law.[26]
The US Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory is working on multiple projects for CO2 use and zero emission technologies to help reduce the carbon footprint of future development and for retrofitting existing cities.
Companies are planning large scale developments without using fossil fuels. Development plans such as those by World Wide Assets LLC for entire cities using only geothermal energy for electricity, geothermal desalination, and employing full recycling systems for water and waste are under development (2006) in Mexico and Australia.
In China, the city of Dongtan is to be built to be produce zero net greenhouse gas emissions.[27]
A zero-carbon (also called non-carbon or post-carbon) economy is a step beyond a low-carbon economy. This may include nuclear-fossil independence and be based on renewable energy sources. As of 2007, Iceland and Sweden, with their petroleum phase-outs, are making big progresses in this direction, with a lot of organizations in the rest of countries promoting also zero-carbon.
The University of East Anglia has a Strategic Carbon Management MBA.
★ Alternative propulsion
★ Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
★ Cenex
★ Electric vehicle
★ Emission standard
★ Energy policy
★ Environmental economics
★ Industrial revolution
★ Low-carbon building
★ Low-carbon emission
★ Mobile Emission Reduction Credit (MERC)
★ Nuclear residue
★ Oil spill
★ One Watt Initiative
★ Plug-in hybrid
★ Sustainable development
★ Vegetable oil economy
★ World economy
★ 2000 Watt society
★ World energy resources and consumption
★ British Petroleum: Gas and Power in a Low Carbon Economy
★ DTI UK: Creating a low carbon economy
★ MSNBC.com Europe eyes 'low-carbon economy'
★ IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute: Low Carbon Economy discussion paper
★ National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan: Low Carbon Society Scenarios toward 2050 (Japanese - English)
★ Grant Thornton International Business Report Energy & Environment survey
★ Carbon Management MBA.
★ Low Carbon Knowledge Transfer Networks
★ Australia 'low-carbon directory'
1. The Low Carbon Economy, The Carbon Trust, published: 2006, accessed 2007-03-27.
2. http://www.ippr.org.uk/research/teams/event.asp?id=2251&pID=1781&tID=86
3. China to maintain 'rapid growth'
4. Sharp rise in India's growth rate
5. Global Warming and Nuclear Power, R. A. Meserve, , , Science, 2004
6. Agents of Change: Preparing for a World Where Carbon Has a Price, British Petroleum, published 2006-06-08, accessed 2007-03-27.
7. Business to fight green taxes
8. Flex Your Power http://www.fypower.org/agri/
9. New Zealand Energy Intensive Business Initiative, http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/climate/policies-initiatives/energy-pilot-scheme.html
10. New Zealand Energy Intensive Business Initiative, http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/climate/policies-initiatives/energy-pilot-scheme.html
11. New Zealand Energy Intensive Business Initiative, http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/climate/policies-initiatives/energy-pilot-scheme.html
12. http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/campaigns/briefingsmore/carbonmgt.htm
13. Global, Regional, and National CO2 Emissions. In ''Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change'', Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres, 2005, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
14. The World Bank, ''Global Gas Flaring Reduction"
15. The Climate Law Organization, Friends of the Earth International.
16. http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=35633
17. Energy information Administration Industry Analysis Briefs, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab/index5e.html
18. The Carbon Trust – a UK government funded company, http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/default.ct,
http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/energy/startsaving/technology.htm
19. http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file10719.pdf
20. http://2050.nies.go.jp/
21.
22. Gross energy consumption by source 1987–2005, ''Statistics Iceland'', accessed 2007-05-14
23. United Nations Millenium Development Goals Indicators, ''United Nations, accessed 2006-08-02.
24. Energy in Iceland ''Icelandic Ministries of Industry and Commerce'', accessed 2007-05-14
25. New Bill and strategy lay foundations for tackling climate change
26. Britain proposes climate change bill
27. Arup unveils plans for world’s first sustainable city in Dongtan, China
Such a low-carbon economy is reached by many states and proposed by organizations as a necessity in order to mitigate the effects of global warming. It might also be hastened by future shortages of oil (Hubbert peak theory) and the associated increases in energy prices that are predicted to come,[2] coupled with anticipated increases in energy demand as countries such as China and India continue their industrialization and coalization.[3]
[4]
A low-carbon economy might be brought about through the use of energy conservation measures, and the substitution of renewable energy sources for fossil fuels, including transport electrification. New technologies such as hydrogen power may also be involved, while carbon capture and storage and the controversial nuclear power might play a role as bridging technologies.[5] It is proposed that the right to emit carbon dioxide would be a traded in carbon emissions trading schemes,[6] and perhaps also be subject to carbon taxes.[7]
A low-carbon economy maybe judged to be not as economically efficient (cost-effective) as a high-carbon economy (especially when assessed using traditional-only cost effect analysis). However, higher energy efficiency of post carbon energies, nowadays existing technological improvements, increases in the costs of carbon fuels, and the introduction of carbon trading or carbon taxes may change this efficiency ratio to favor a low-carbon economy.
Primary Sector
Agriculture
Foodstuffs should be produced as close as possible to the final consumers (preferably within walking/cycling distance). This will reduce the amount of carbon-based energy necessary to transport the foodstuffs. Consumers can also buy fresh food rather than processed food, since carbon-based energy might be used to process the food. Cooking presents another opportunity to conserve energy. Energy could be saved if farmers produced more foods that people would eat raw.
Also, most of the agricultural facilities in the developed world are mechanized due to rural electrification. Rural electrification has produced significant productivity gains, but it also uses a lot of energy. For this and other reasons (such as transport costs) in the low-carbon, rural areas will rely heavily on locally and renewably produced electricity.
Irrigation can be one of the main components of an agricultural facility's energy consumption. In parts of California it can be up to 90%. [8] In the low carbon economy, irrigation equipment will be maintained and continually updated and farms will use less irrigation water.
Crops
Different crops require different amounts of energy input. For example, glasshouse crops, irrigated crops, and orchards require a lot of energy to maintain, while row crops and field crops don’t need as much maintenance. Those glasshouse and irrigated crops that do exist will incorporate the following improvements: [9]
Glasshouse crops
• environmental control systems
• heat recovery using condensers
• heat storage using buffer tanks
• heat retention using thermal screens
• alternative fuels (e.g. waste wood)
• cogeneration (heat and power)
Irrigated arable crops
• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• variable speed drives on pumps
Livestock
Livestock operations can also use a lot of energy depending on how they are run. Feed lots use animal feed made from corn, soybeans, and other crops. Energy must be expended to produce these crops, process and transport them. Free-range animals find their own vegetation to feed on. The farmer may expend energy to take care of that vegetation, but not nearly as much as the farmer who grows cereal and oil-seed crops.
Many livestock operations currently use a lot of energy to water their livestock. In the low-carbon economy, such operations will use more water conservation methods such as rainwater collection, water cisterns, etc and they will also pump/distribute that water with on-site renewable energy sources (most likely wind and solar).
Due to rural electrification, most agricultural facilities in the developed world use a lot of electricity. In a low-carbon economy, farms will be run and equipped to allow for greater energy efficiency. The dairy industry, for example, will incorporate the following changes: [9]
Irrigated Dairy
• heat recovery on milk vats
• variable speed drives on motors/pumps
• heat recovery from hot water wash
• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• biodigester with cogen (heat & power)
• vat wrap
• solar water heating
• ripple control
• ice bank
• chemical substitute for hot water wash
Hunting and Fishing
Fishing is quite energy intensive. Improvements such as heat recovery on refrigeration and trawl net technology will be common in the low-carbon economy. [9]
Forestry
In the low-carbon economy, forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil based carbon reserves, too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations in order to maximize output. [12]
Mining
See main article: Gas flare
Flaring and venting of natural gas in oil wells is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Its contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year and now accounts for about 1/2 of one percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.[13]
The World Bank estimates that 100 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually, an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France, twice the annual gas consumption of Africa, three quarters of Russian gas exports, or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 20 days. This flaring is highly concentrated: 10 countries account for 75% of emissions, and twenty for 90%.[14] The largest flaring operations occur in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The leading contributors to gas flaring are (in declining order): Nigeria, Russia, Iran, Algeria, Mexico, Venezuela, Indonesia, and the United States.[15]
Secondary Sector
Basic metals Processing
★ high efficiency electric motors
★ induction furnaces
★ heat recovery
Nonmetallic product Processing
★ variable speed drives
★ injection molding - replace hydraulic with electric servo motors
Wood Processing
★ high efficiency motors
★ high efficiency fans
★ dehumidifier driers
Paper and Pulp Making
★ variable speed drives
★ high efficiency motors
Food Processing
★ high efficiency boilers
★ heat recovery e.g. refrigeration
★ solar hot water for pre-heating
★ bio fuels e.g. tallow, wood
Tertiary Sector
Retail
Retail operations in the low-carbon economy will have several new features. One will be high efficiency lighting such as compact fluorescent, halogen, and eventually LED light sources. Many retail stores will also feature roof-top solar panel arrays. These make sense because solar panels produce the most energy during the daytime and during the summer. These are the same times that electricity is the most expensive and also the same times that store use the most electricity. [16]
Transportation Services
★ Driver training
★ Bio fuels (biodiesel, ethanol)
★ Fuel surcharges will be a more significant part of consumer costs
★ More vehicle hybridization, particularly through retrofit kits
★ Increased focus on fuel efficient vehicle shapes and configurations
★ More alternative and flex-fuel vehicles (based on local conditions and availability)
★ Less international trade of physical objects, despite more overall trade (as measure by value of goods)
★ More pipeline capacity for common fluid commodities such as water, ethanol, natural gas, petroleum, and hydrogen (in addition to gasoline and diesel).
★ Greater use of marine and rail transport, less use of air and truck transport.
See [17][18][19]
Initial steps
Internationally, the most prominent early step in the direction of a low-carbon economy was the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force on February 16, 2005, under which most industrialized countries committed to reduce their carbon emissions.[20][21] Importantly, all member nations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development except Australia and the United States have ratified the protocol.
Australia
Although the Australian Government has been reluctant implement any emission reduction targets or regulations the voluntary market has seen the development of carbon neutral businesses. Many Australian carbon offset companies offer carbon neutrality of businesses based on life cycle impact assessments of varying detail. One offset provider,the Carbon Reduction Institute, has produced a Low Carbon Directory, to promote a low carbon economy in Australia.
Europe
Iceland
Main articles: Renewable energy in Iceland
By exploiting geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland provides over 70% of the nation's primary energy needs since 1999, and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity.[22] As a result Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States[23] despite using more primary energy per capita.[24] Iceland expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, a draft Climate Change Bill outlining a framework for the transition to a low-carbon economy was published on March 13 2007. This legislation would require a 60% cut in the UK's carbon emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels), with an intermediate target of between 26% and 32% by 2020.[25] If approved, the UK would likely become the first country to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law.[26]
United States
The US Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory is working on multiple projects for CO2 use and zero emission technologies to help reduce the carbon footprint of future development and for retrofitting existing cities.
Cities
Companies are planning large scale developments without using fossil fuels. Development plans such as those by World Wide Assets LLC for entire cities using only geothermal energy for electricity, geothermal desalination, and employing full recycling systems for water and waste are under development (2006) in Mexico and Australia.
In China, the city of Dongtan is to be built to be produce zero net greenhouse gas emissions.[27]
Zero-carbon economy
A zero-carbon (also called non-carbon or post-carbon) economy is a step beyond a low-carbon economy. This may include nuclear-fossil independence and be based on renewable energy sources. As of 2007, Iceland and Sweden, with their petroleum phase-outs, are making big progresses in this direction, with a lot of organizations in the rest of countries promoting also zero-carbon.
Education
The University of East Anglia has a Strategic Carbon Management MBA.
See also
★ Alternative propulsion
★ Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
★ Cenex
★ Electric vehicle
★ Emission standard
★ Energy policy
★ Environmental economics
★ Industrial revolution
★ Low-carbon building
★ Low-carbon emission
★ Mobile Emission Reduction Credit (MERC)
★ Nuclear residue
★ Oil spill
★ One Watt Initiative
★ Plug-in hybrid
★ Sustainable development
★ Vegetable oil economy
★ World economy
★ 2000 Watt society
★ World energy resources and consumption
External links
★ British Petroleum: Gas and Power in a Low Carbon Economy
★ DTI UK: Creating a low carbon economy
★ MSNBC.com Europe eyes 'low-carbon economy'
★ IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute: Low Carbon Economy discussion paper
★ National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan: Low Carbon Society Scenarios toward 2050 (Japanese - English)
★ Grant Thornton International Business Report Energy & Environment survey
★ Carbon Management MBA.
★ Low Carbon Knowledge Transfer Networks
★ Australia 'low-carbon directory'
References
1. The Low Carbon Economy, The Carbon Trust, published: 2006, accessed 2007-03-27.
2. http://www.ippr.org.uk/research/teams/event.asp?id=2251&pID=1781&tID=86
3. China to maintain 'rapid growth'
4. Sharp rise in India's growth rate
5. Global Warming and Nuclear Power, R. A. Meserve, , , Science, 2004
6. Agents of Change: Preparing for a World Where Carbon Has a Price, British Petroleum, published 2006-06-08, accessed 2007-03-27.
7. Business to fight green taxes
8. Flex Your Power http://www.fypower.org/agri/
9. New Zealand Energy Intensive Business Initiative, http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/climate/policies-initiatives/energy-pilot-scheme.html
10. New Zealand Energy Intensive Business Initiative, http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/climate/policies-initiatives/energy-pilot-scheme.html
11. New Zealand Energy Intensive Business Initiative, http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/climate/policies-initiatives/energy-pilot-scheme.html
12. http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/campaigns/briefingsmore/carbonmgt.htm
13. Global, Regional, and National CO2 Emissions. In ''Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change'', Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres, 2005, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
14. The World Bank, ''Global Gas Flaring Reduction"
15. The Climate Law Organization, Friends of the Earth International.
16. http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=35633
17. Energy information Administration Industry Analysis Briefs, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab/index5e.html
18. The Carbon Trust – a UK government funded company, http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/default.ct,
http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/energy/startsaving/technology.htm
19. http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file10719.pdf
20. http://2050.nies.go.jp/
21.
22. Gross energy consumption by source 1987–2005, ''Statistics Iceland'', accessed 2007-05-14
23. United Nations Millenium Development Goals Indicators, ''United Nations, accessed 2006-08-02.
24. Energy in Iceland ''Icelandic Ministries of Industry and Commerce'', accessed 2007-05-14
25. New Bill and strategy lay foundations for tackling climate change
26. Britain proposes climate change bill
27. Arup unveils plans for world’s first sustainable city in Dongtan, China
This article provided by Wikipedia. To edit the contents of this article, click here for original source.
psst.. try this: add to faves
Featured Companies
| Dancing Moon Travel | |
| Alpine Interface Inc. | |
| Travelbugs, LLC | |
| Golf Holidays International |
