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'Malayalee' or 'Malayali' (Malayalam: മലയാളി) is the name given to the inhabitants of the state of Kerala. The word Malayali originates from Tamil, ''Malai'' meaning Hill and ''Aali'' meaning person. Malayalee literally means a person hailing from a Hill Country in Tamil. It is synonymous with the word 'Keralite'. Malayalees can be either Hindus, Muslims (Mappila muslims and others) or Christian (Nasarani and others). A small number of Malayalees are also Jewish. Malayalam is the language spoken by a majority of Malayalees.
According to the Indian census of 1991, there were 28,096,376 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala making up 96.6% of the total population (up from 95.99% in 1981). There were a further 38,392 (4.8%) in Pondicherry, 43,678 (84.5%) in Lakshadweep, and a further 2,198,730 in other parts of India (Mother Tongue figures, active use of language unknown). In all, Malayalees made up 3.59% of all Indians in 1991. Of the total 30,377,176 Malayalam speakers in India in 1991, a total of 30,325,637 spoke the standard dialects, 17,295 spoke the Yerava dialect and 34,244 spoke non-standard regional variations like Eranadan.Census of India Newsletter, ''censusindia.net'' 28.85% of all Malayalam speakers in India fluently spoke another second language. 19.64% of the total knew 3 or more languages. 26,073 Malayalam speakers in Andaman and Nicobar made up 9.29% of it's population in 1991. Large numbers of Malayalees have settled in Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mumbai (Bombay), and Chennai (Madras).A large number of Malayalis have emigrated to the Middle East, Europe and North America. There were 79,860 speakers of Malayalam in USA, according to the 2000 census. The 2001 Canadian census reported 7,070 people who had Malayalam as their mother tongue. There were 2,968 Malayalam speakers in Australia in 2001.Community Relations Commission, For a multicultural NSW, ''crc.nsw.gov.au'' The 2006 New Zealand census reported 2,139 speakers.Statistics New Zealand, ''stats.govt.nz'' 134 Malayalam speaking households were reported in 1956 in Fiji. There are also considerable malayali population in Arab regions. Especially in Dubai, where there is the biggest Kerala Diaspora of the world. There are around 250,000 they make up most of the Indians in Dubai.
The Negritos seem to be the earliest inhabitants of Kerala, as of South India in general.[4]The physical characteristics are curly hair, black skin, round head and broad nose.The descendants of this race are in tribes called the 'Uralis', 'Paniyas', 'Kadars' and 'Muthuvas'.[4]The Uralis are the primitive artisans of Wayanad whose pot-making technique is very primitive as no potter's wheel is used.[4]Marriage by elopement is very common among the Paniyas.[4]The Kadars know little or no agriculture.[4]The Muthuvas rear cattle, but instead of milking it, they sell it.The ''Proto-Australoids'', who came long after Negritos, are distinguished by their long head and flat nose.Their descendants are the 'Kurichiyas' and 'Mulla Kurumbas' of Wayanad.[4]Kurichiyas are matrilineal, having large matrilineal households in a cluster of huts known as ''Mittam''.Mulla Kurumbas are patrilineal in nature.The Dravidians, who came still later, are represented by communities like Nairs, Ezhavas, etc.Namputhiries represent the spearhead of Aryan penetration to the deep south.There has been considerable mingling of Aryan and Dravidian strains in the case of the Nair community because of socially sanctioned practice of Namputhiri males marrying Nair women.[4]Though there has been an infusion of Assyrian, Arabic and Jewish blood in case of the Christian, Muslim and Jew communities, the basic stock is indegenous.[4]
The following are the major communities among Malayalees:
Main Article: Ezhava.
'Ezhava' is the largest and one of the major progressive communities in Kerala. Ezhavas are also found amongst the Malayalee Diaspora around the world. Ezhavas are today a social group sharing a common history from the pre-social reform era, when caste was an integral part of the political, economic, legal and social order across the erstwhile kingdoms of Travancore and Kochi that form the present day Kerala State. Historically, Ezhavas never found a place in the four-tier caste system of the old Hindu community. Buddhist origins and/or migration from the island of Sri Lanka could have led to a situation like this.
Ezhavas, today, form the majority of the Hindus and about 29% of the total population of the State. It would be most appropriate to term Ezhavas as a 'community' that shares a common social history, largely unknown to each other on account of its demographic enormity. Arranged marriages within the community primarily retain the social integrity and identity of the Ezhavas. Sree Narayana Guru, the religious teacher and social reformer of early 20th century, paved the way for improvement in the spiritual freedom and other social conditions of the downtrodden communities expecially Ezhava community. Also the Ezhava community's largely undisputed acceptance of Sree Narayana Guru as their spiritual and/or social and intellectual mentor and guiding spirit adds a major and unifying facet to community integrity and identity today. Many Ezhavas were notable as Ayurvedic/Sidha physicians, Warriors and traders. In Malabar Ezhavas are known as Thiyyas. In fact one of the early translations of Ashtanga Hridaya (a celebrated Sanskrit treatise on Ayurveda) to Malayalam was by an Ezhava physician, Kayikkara Govindan Vaidyar.
Main Article: Mappila.
The 'Mappilas' historically called ''Moplahs'' in Malayalam are a Muslim and Syrian Malabar Nasrani community in Kerala and neighbouring states and territories of India. They form the second largest community in kerala.
The word ''mappila'' is derived from the old(Pure) Malayalam words Amma and pilla meaning ''Child of Mother'' The Muslim Mappilas are the earliest known Indian Muslim community, having existed since the 8th century AD, when Arab merchants who had long been trading with the Chera kingdom converted them to Islam, based on the preachings of monotheism by Muhammad in Arabia.
They propagated their faith along the Malabar Coast.
In the 16th and 17th centuries they are known for their fight against Portuguese inquisition and conversion to Christianity of native people of malabar coast. 19th and early 20th centuries, Mappilas were known for active armed attacks against the British, including the 1921 Moplah rebellion.
Mappilas fought hand in hand with their Hindu brothers to stop European invaders and protected coast of Kerala from cultural and religious conversions. Their cooperation and intimacy with Hindu community is well known. During Zamorins, Mappilas commanded good positions in the rule. It is interesting to notice that, the letter handed over to zamorin from the Portuguese King was in Arabic language.
During the Moplah Rebellion,arsonists took to the street, burning and destroying government property. The initial focus was on the government, but when the limited presence of the government was eliminated, Moplahs turned their full attention on the Hindus. One Mohommed Haji was proclaimed the Caliph of the Moplah Khilafat and flags of Islamic Caliphate were flown. Ernad and Walluvanad were declared Khilafat kingdoms.
By the end of 1921 the situation was brought back under control. The British administration raised a special quasi-military (or Armed Police) battalion, the Malabar Special Police (MSP). These police recruits were trained by the British Indian Army, and during its initial days the recruits were non-Muslims. The MSP attacked the rioters, eventually subduing them.
Arrested Muslim rioters were to be transferred to the Central Prison in Pothanur (near Coimbatore). They were bundled into a Goods/Freight wagon, and the train started its journey. At Pothanur it was found out that the jail was full to its maximum capacity, and the prisoners were ordered to be taken back. During this time, 66 of the 100 or so rioters had suffocated to death in the closed iron wagon. In recent years, many Kerala Muslims have found work in the Middle East (especially in Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates ), sending remittances home to support families in Kerala. This makes Kerala one of the main contributors of foreign exchange to Indian economy.Most Mappila Muslims follow the Shafi'i school of Muslim Jurisprudence (in contrast to the Hanafi school followed by most South Asian Muslims). The Pakistan Movement (which drew its strongest support from Muslims in northern India) received a lukewarm reception amongst Muslims in Kerala, and relatively few Mappilas migrated to Pakistan following partition.
Main Article: Nair.
'Nair', sometimes spelt ''Nayar'' is the name of a Hindu caste from the southern Indian state of Kerala. The Nair caste was a martial nobility, similar to the Samurai of Japan.[12][13][14][15] The Nairs figure prominently in the history of Kerala and were feudal lords and warriors long before the arrival of the Namboothiris. After the arrival of the Namboothiris, the Nairs retained their ruling and martial professions , although the ''Namboothiris'' regarded them (and every other caste in Kerala) as Sudras. However, the Nairs were considered to be ''Savarna'' Sudras.[16]
Ancient South Indian history, historians, and foreign travelers refer to the Nairs as a dignified martial nobility. The origin of the Nair caste is uncertain. The earliest reference to Nairs comes from the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. In his accounts of ancient India, he refers to the "Nayars of Malabar" and the "Kingdom of Chera".Aiya, V. Nagam: "Travancore State Manual", pages 232, 238 Some anthropologists are of the view that the Nairs are not indigenous to Kerala, as many customs and traditions distinguish them from other Keralites. Some examples are their own form of inheritance (Marumakkathayam), warfare (Kalaripayattu), Gods and Goddesses (''Nagas'' or serpents, and Bhadhrakali), and numerous sub-castes and surnames. There is also a belief that the Nairs are Nagas. The Travancore State Manual states that there were indeed serpent-worshipping Nagas in Kerala who fought with the Namboodiris till they reached a consensus. The affinity of the Nair community with serpents and serpent worship is indisputable and might have given rise to their reputation of having a Naga origin. Naga worship might have also given rise to the mythical version of Nairs being Kshatriyas belonging to the Serpent dynasty (Nagavansham) who removed their sacred thread and migrated south to escape the wrath of a vengeful Parasurama. According to Chatambi Swamigal, who interpreted old Tamil texts, the Nairs were Naka (Naga or Snake) Lords who ruled as feudal lords in the Chera kingdom. The ''Kerala Mahatmayam'' calls them the progeny of Namboothiri men with Deva, Rakshasa and Gandharva women.
Another theory is that Nairs are actually the descendants of the Newars of Nepal, who migrated to Kerala. There are many facts to support this view. One of the most prominent arguments is the distinct pagoda-like architectural style of Nair Tharavaadus and Temples. In addition, there is the Marumakkathaayam system of inheritance (a similar system is also practiced by the Newars).Kerala History, ''keralaonlinetourism.com'' One finds mention of the Nairs during the reign of the King Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1020-1102) of the second Chera dynasty, when the Chera Kingdom was attacked by the Cholas. The Nairs fought by forming suicide squads (Chavers) against the invading force. It is not clear whether the Cheras themselves were Nairs, or if the Cheras employed the Nairs as a warrior class.
The Nairs lost their supremacy gradually after the collapse of the second Chera kingdom while the Namboothiris gathered affluence and power. However, Nairs continued to be feudal lords and owned large estates till the time the Land Reforms Ordinance was enacted by Kerala State Government, which set a ceiling on the land holdings that a person or family could possess. It is also contended that the Nairs were migrants from Tulu Nadu. Manual of Madras Administration Vol II (printed in 1885) notes that the Nadavas are the same people as the Nairs of Malabar and the Bunts of Southern Tulu nadu.
Main Article: Syrian Malabar Nasrani.
The 'Syrian Malabar Nasrani' people are an ethnic group from Kerala. The term refers to those who became Christians in the Malabar coast in the earliest days of Christianity, including the natives and the Jewish diaspora in Kerala.Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; & Koder S. 1973; T.K. Velu Pillai, 1940 They follow a unique Hebrew-Syriac Christian tradition which includes several Jewish elements along with some Hindu customs. Their heritage is Syriac-Keralite, their culture South Indian, their faith St. Thomas Christian, and their language Malayalam.Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956 Much of their Jewish tradition has been forgotten, especially after the Portuguese invasion of Kerala in the early 1500s.Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956 The Nasrani people are also called ''Syrian-Malabar Christians'', ''Saint Thomas Christians'' or even as ''Syrian Christians''. They are also called as ''Nasrani Mapillas''. According to Hermann Gundert (who wrote the first Malayalam dictionary), the term 'mapilla' was a title used to denote semitic immigrants from West Asia. Thus the term Mapilla was used to denote both, the Arab descendants and Christian-Jewish descendants in Kerala. The descendants of Arabs were, and still are, called ''Jonakan Muslim Mappila'', while the descendants of Syrian-Jewish Christians are called ''Nasrani Mappilas''.Gantz Brothers, Land of the Perumals 1863 and the descendants of Halakhik Cochin Jews are called as ''Juda Mappila''.Bindu Malieckal (2005); The Syrian Malabar Nasranis are comprised of some of the earliest people who joined Christianity, including the native people of Kerala and many Malabar Jews from the Jewish diaspora of the pre-Christian era who were settled in Kerala.Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; & Koder S. 1973; T.K. Velu Pillai, 1940 The community is also comprised of the 3rd and 9th century Syriac Christian settlements in Kerala. The 3rd century settlers are today known as ''Knanaya Nasranis''.Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Vellian Jacob 2001; Menachery G, 1973, 1998; Poomangalam C.A. 1998; Leslie Brown, 1956
Since Hinduism was the predomininant local religion, many writers claim that the first converts were mainly the Brahmin's of Kerala called the namboothiris, but others argue that the claims were made by the later Christians to obtain special caste status in the prevailing caste system of India. A notable point is that the Namboothiri history claims their origin in Kerala in the seventh century CE,Veluthat, K. 1978 while Christianity in India originated in the first century CE. Thus the community consists of people from ethnic groups of Kerala including some Brahmins, the pre-Christian era Jewish diaspora, different trading diaspora of Muzirs, local Dravidian converts, Syriac Christian settlers and the Knanayas.Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Vellian Jacob 2001; Tisserant, E. (1957) Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye; Menachery G 1973, 1998; Leslie Brown, 1956; Poomangalam C.A. 1998
'Namboothiris' are the upper class Brahmins of Kerala and form a tiny minority. They perform Pooja in temples of Kerala based on Tantra Vidhi. The other temple related activities known as Kazhakam are performed by Ambalavasis. There are also other brahmins called Sharada Brahmins, who have their own temples, mutts, ashrams, sannyasi sanghams and guru lineages. The unique thing about Namboothiris is that they follow the poorva mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy unlike uttara mimamsa or vedanta school followed by most of the South Indians.
Namboothiri is said to be either derived from Nambu meaning sacred (in Prakruta Tenugu) and Thiri which is a suffix added to the names of certain upper castes in Kerala. Another view is that it is derived from Nam (Veda) and Poorayathi (who imparts).Brahmins are supposed to have migrated from North. However, it is unclear if all of them migrated after various South Indian kingdoms started taking shape. According to modern Keralite Historians the period of the first arrival of Namboothiris in Kerala happened around 5th-7th century AD after the fall of the first Chera Kingdom (Which is debatable as therewere Namboothiri Brahmin settlments in Kerala as early as 2nd century BC as said in Sangam literature, Dandi's story, etc.), and settled in 32 gramams(villages) through out Kerala, may be called the original Namboothiris. Most of them live in central Kerala and a few, in north and south kerala.
Main Article: Cochin Jews.
'Cochin Jews', also called ''Malabar Jews'' (''Malabar Yehudan'') are the ancient Jews and their descendants of the erstwhile state of Kingdom of Cochin which includes the present day port city of Kochi.[17] They traditionally spoke Judeo-Malayalam, a form of the Malayalam tongue, native to the state of Kerala, in India. Several rounds of immigration of the Jewish diaspora into Kerala led to a diversity amongst the Cochin Jews. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973. Some sources say that the earliest Jews were those who settled in the Malabar coast during the times of King Solomon of Israel, and after the Kingdom of Israel split into two.[18] They are sometimes referred to as the "black Jews". The Paradesi Jews, also called "White Jews", settled later, coming to India from European and Middle Eastern nations such as Holland and Spain, and bringing with them the Ladino language. Spanish and Portuguese Jews (Sephardim) settled in Goa in the 15th century, but this settlement eventually disappeared. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Cochin had an influx of Jewish settlers from the Middle East and North Africa.Jews came to Kerala and settled as early as 700 BC for trade. An old, but not particularly reliable, tradition says that Jews of Cochin came in mass to Cranganore (an ancient port, near Cochin) after the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E. A chieftain by the name of Joseph Rabban, according to local tradition, was granted a principality over the Jews of Cochin by the Chera Emperor of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravivarman II. His descendents had, in effect, their own principality (called Anjuvannam in Indian sources) for many centuries until a chieftainship dispute broke out between two brothers (one of them named Joseph Azar) in the 15th century. The dispute led neighboring princes to dispossess them. In 1524, the Muslims, backed by the ruler of Calicut (today called Kozhikode), attacked the Jews of Cranganore on the pretext that they were tampering with the pepper trade. Most Jews fled to Cochin and went under the protection of the Hindu Raja there. He granted them a site for their own town that later acquired the name "Jew Town" (by which it is still known).Unfortunately for the Jews of Cochin, the Portuguese occupied Cochin in this same period and indulged in persecution of the Jews until the Dutch displaced them in 1660. The Dutch Protestants were tolerant, and the Jews prospered. In 1795 Cochin was occupied by and came under the control of the British Empire. In the 19th century, Cochin Jews lived in the towns of Cochin, Ernakulam, Aluva andNorth Paravur.The Jews of Cochin did not adhere to the Talmudic prohibition, followed by other Orthodox Jews, against public singing by women, and therefore have a rich tradition of Jewish prayers and narrative songs performed by women in Judeo-Malayalam. The Jewish Music Research Center at Hebrew University has compiled a CD of these songs.
Most of Malayalees live in Kerala – one of the heaviest raining places in India. Thus, the architecture form they adopted suited for this condition. Typical building structures in Kerala are adopted for water conservation i.e., to conserve water received from rain. In hot season, these structures provide natural air-conditioning too.
Traditional houses of Kerala are built in accordance with the principles of `Thatchushastra’ (Science of carpentry) and ‘Vastushastra’, the ancient Indian science of architecture. Architecture of Kerala is amalgam of influences both from foreign and Indian origin. Influence of Chinese and Japanese architecture is felt strongly.[19] These are clearly evident from the gabled roofs and all wood, coconut frond thatched constructions. One of the typical architectural structures once widely used by Malayalees is discussed below:
Nalukettu is a quadrangular building constructed after following the Thatchushastra. In past, Nalukettu was the house in which Malayalees lived. It was a typical house which was flanked by out-houses and utility structures.
Nalukettu is constructed within a large compound. It was called Nalukettu because it consisted of four wings around a central courtyard called Nadumuttom. The four wings contained rooms to house a large joint family. The Vadakkani or the northern block had two rooms which were the kitchen and the dining room. The Padinjath which was the western block had three rooms of which the middle one was the strong room and the others were bed rooms. The middle portion of the eastern and the southern blocks were for visitors. On all four sides of the inner courtyard were verandahs. The entrance to the house was through a gate house called Padippura.
The house has a quadrangle in the center. The quadrangle is in every way the center of life in the house very useful for the performance of rituals.
The mansion is created using wood and tiles, central open courtyard and wondrous architecture. The interiors of the house are tastefully decorated with a wealth of antiques made from teak, sandal wood, mahogany etc.The traditional `Nalukettu’, barring the foundation and floor is made of carved and slotted wood and has a close resemblance to East Asian gabled and thatched structures. In later years, tiles replaced the coconut fronds.
The enclosed courtyard or `ankanam’ is usually sunk and therefore called `kuzhi (pit) ankanam’. The protruding roofs formed shady verandas and protected the rooms from direct sunlight, keeping them cool even on the hottest of days. The inner verandah around the ankanam is open.The outer verandahs along the four sides of the Nalukettu are enclosed differently. While both the western and eastern verandahs are left open the northern and southern verandahs are enclosed or semi-enclosed.
The lay out of these homes were simple, and catered to the dwelling of the large number of people usually part of a tharavaadu. Ettukettu (eight halled with two central courtyards) or Pathinarukettu (sixteen halled with four central courtyards) are the more elaborate forms of the same architecture. Every structure faces the sunlight, and in some well designed nalukettu, there is excellent ventilation. Temperatures, even in the heat of summer, are markedly lower within the nalukettu.
Example of a Nalukettu structure is 'Mattancherry Palace'.
Main Article: Tharavadu
Tharavadu is a system of joint family practised by Malayalees, especially castes like Namboothris, Nairs and Ezhavas. Each Tharavadu has a unique name. As joint families grew and established independent settlements, the Sakhas (branches) modified the names in a such way that the main Tharavadu names are identifiable, yet Sakha (or "Thavazhi", i.e. Thay Vazhi which means "Through Mother") had a distinct name. For communities like Nairs, 'Tharavad name' is identified through their Mothers house ('Thavazhi') but some other communities like Namboothiris the names are identified by their fathers 'Tharavadu'. For ezhavas, depending upon the social status of the family, the names are identified by their father's or mother's 'Tharavadu'.Some Tharavadus were the protectors and rulers of the Desam (place) that they were in and a reporting relationship emerged over a period to a "Naadu Vaazhi" (Ruler of the land). Naadu is a group of Desams. Since the tharavadu had a brand name of its own, it had vested upon the members a sense of responsibility to conduct themselves in manner befitting the traditions. The Tharavadu was administered by 'Karnavar', the senior most male member of the family. He will be the eldest maternal uncle of the family as well. The members of the Tharavadu consisted of mother, daughters, sons, sisters and brothers. The fathers and husbands had only very minimal role to play in the affairs of the Tharavadu. It was a true matrilineal affair. The Karanavar took all major decisions. He was usually autocratic. However, the consent of the eldest female member of the family was taken before implementing the decisions. This eldest female member would be his maternal grandmother, own mother, mother's sister, his own sister or a sister through his maternal lineage. Since the lineage was through the female members, the birth of a daughter was always welcomed.Each tharavadu also has a Bhara Devatha (clan deity) revered by those in the particular tharavadu. Temples were built to honour these deities. A Kalarideivam/devatha or deity presiding over the practice of Kalaripayattu (martial art form in Kerala) was also honoured.
Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the Majority World.[1][2] Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhava families in Travancore and Cochin, Ezhavas in north kerala and Muslims around Kannur used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''marumakkathayam'' which has in the recent years (post Indian independence) ceased to exist. Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and some Ezhavas follow ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.[22] Kerala's gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Majority World.[23][24] However, this too is coming under threat, from such forces as patriarchy-enforced oppression of women.
Malayalees have derived their own form of Indian classical music. It is given the name 'Sopanam'.Sopanam is a form of Indian classical music developed in the temples of Kerala in the wake of the increasing popularity of the Jayadeva's 'Gita Govinda' or 'Ashtapathi'. Sopanasangitham is sung by the side of the steps (Sopanam) of Temple, with the accompaniment of the drum called 'Idakka'. The sopanasangitam in its traditional form is seen at its best among the Marars and Poduvals, who were hereditary Ambalavasi Ardha Brahmanas (Semi Brahmins) engaged to do the same.Kerala has shared the general musical culture of peninsular India from the earliest times. South Indian music is generally known as Carnatic music because of its common features. Each region of the south has its own culture. Kerala's music is known as Sopanam. Sangeetam (Music) appears to have acquired its name from the 'Sopanam' which means 'Sanctum Sanctorum' of the temple. Its essential features were born out of a happy blending of the Vedic, the folk and tribal music of the region.Some famous singers are Neralattu Rama Poduval, Janardhanan Nedungadi and Damodara Marar.
Panchari Melam The percussion ensemble panchari melam (or panchari), as part of the chenda melam (or melam) family, is the best-known and most popular kshetram vadyam genre to be performed at virtually every temple festival in central Kerala. Malayalees, especially in the central districts, regard panchari as the most ancient percussion genre in Kerala. Other melams are pandi, chempata, anchatanta, dhruvam, atanta, and chempha. Though there are musical and ritualistic differences between the panchari and other melams, the description of the former is proto-typical for the latter. Panchari melam is either performed in an elaborated form (bigger ensemble, longer performance time) to accompany the annual temple festivals or in an abbreviated form for the daily or weekly rituals. Both forms are performed within the walls of the temple. The ensemble starts at the main entrance to the inner part of the temple, slowly circumambulating the shrine clockwise while playing. On either of the eight wind directions or the compass points they stop and perform. Usually a phase or at least a talavattam (tala cycle, see below) is concluded before proceeding; thus paying reference to each divinity located in different parts of the temple. The procession is led by the divine idol of the temple kept on an elephant or carried by a Nambutiri priest. The deity faces the musical ensemble and devotees, the latter surrounding the musicians in a semi-circle eagerly following the musical progress of the melam.
Panchavadyam As Panchavadyam is regarded as one of the most sophisticated art forms in Kerala, the performers are highly respected and usually a huge crowd gathers to watch and listen to the performance. In distinction to the smaller ritualistic panchavadyam, this orchestral form is also called sevanga panchavadyam. Similar to chenda melam, panchavadyam is also characterised by a pyramid rhythmic structure, the ever increasing tempo, and the proportionally decreasing number of beats in a cycles. In contrast to melam it uses different instruments, is not related so closely to the kshetram ritual, contains improvised parts, and its present form was only composed in the 1930s by the maddalam artist Venkichan Swami Bhagavatar and Madhava Warrier. An intelligent mixture of composed and improvised parts creates an amazing sound atmosphere. Similar to panchari the artists are grouped in two semicircles facing each other. According to the panchavadyam band leader and timila artist Kuttapan Marar (2001), this genre is not performed for any ritual, though it is performed in a small ensemble parallel to the diparadhana evening ritual.
The hallmark of Kerala music lies in the dominance of percussion instruments, its roots in the traditional kavu ritual music and the natural environment. Modern Kerala gives us hints of the sources from which these early musicians had created such a mighty and powerful music: the hammering sound of the woodpecker; the various sounds of falling rain on leafs or thatched roofs in the long rainy season; the croaking of the frogs after heavy rainfall; storm and wind moving the leafs of trees, bushes and grass. Or the man-made sounds: the regular noise of wood cutting and chopping; the washer women beating the dirty clothes onto the stones at the river or temple pond. The Malayalees only distinguish two forms of music kutuka (to drum) and pattu (to sing). It is interesting that the term pattu is also used for solo instrumental genres kuzhal (oboe) and kombu pattu (horn). Percussion domination means that the musical framework of the pieces is not determined by a melody or raga, but consists of a very sophisticated rhythmical structure and content. The ‘melody’ of a piece is formed through a prominent rhythmic sound. Depending on the ritual this rhythm melody is more or less elaborated, and more or fewer compositional or improvisational elements are employed. A melody or raga, where it is used, is usually subordinated to the rhythm (an exception of this rule is kuzhal pattu). The term percussion-dominated indicates that the main instruments are drums and cymbals and the rhythmic structure is the main feature of the music. The wind instruments have in this sense a subordinated role to play. Actually, the function and entry of kuzhal and kombu in the big orchestras is very much the same as a rhythm instrument. The wind instruments have to embellish and to prolong the beat of the drums, to give signs for taking up the kalasom (a kind of cadential phrase) and have to play some pattern on the given talam. Common to all percussion items is that each single music genre represents a unique musical piece. Therefore one of the bigger orchestral pieces, like the chenda melam (or melam), is always played with the same rhythmic structure. The beauty of every performance is the result of an intelligent and experienced combination of time and tempo. This combination is mainly responsible for whether the concert develops into a superior or merely an average performance. The main responsibility for this very difficult artistic task lies with the skill of the band leader, who is always a drum player and belongs to the Marar or Pooduval community. He is responsible for guiding the other musicians through the given time frame, to perform a chenda melam in one, two, three or even four hours. The position of the bandleader in melam is to be the most important solo musician, responsible for the pace and progress of the piece, rather than being a conductor guiding the orchestra from the front. The informal and relaxed atmosphere is enhanced by the band playing in front of the elephants, the audience pushing from all sides and punching the air with their fists. A point of confusion, especially in relationship to Karnatik music, are the terms and descriptions of the many talam (rhythm) cycles used in Kerala music. Though there are a certain distinctive number of talam cycles en vogue (i.e. with distinct numbers of beats and subdivisions) the terms vary by region, genre, and musician groups. We mention the talam cycles and subdivisions as we deal with each genre, using the name most commonly mentioned by the musicians of that genre.
Malayalees have a rich artistic and cultural tradition. These traditions give rise to art forms and festivals that are vibrant and colorful. Dance forms are intricate, gentle, and artistic. Festivals often involve elaborate processions of elephants accompanied by the sounds of drums, cymbals, and firecrackers.
Kathakali originated from Ramanattom (“Rama”= the Hindu god, Sri Rama; “nattom”= enactment”) and Krishnanattom ("Krishna"= the Hindu god, Krishna; “nattom”= enactment). History has it that Raja (ruler) of Kottarakkara (a province in Kerala) sculpted Ramanattom when the Zamorin (then ruler of Kozhikode, another province in Kerala) refused to allow a performance of Krishnanattom in the former’s palace. Subsequently, Kottayam Thampuran (ruler of Kottayam, another province in Kerala) composed several plays on Mahabharata thereby making these distinct from stories based on Ramanattom. Thus, Kathakali was born. Kathakali shares a lot of similarities to both Ramanattom and Krishnanattom. But it also incorporated several outside elements, which is thought to have contributed to its popularity. In particular, the increasing use of Malayalam, which is the local language (albeit as a mix of Sanskrit and Malayalam, called Manipravaalam) made it more popular among the masses. During its evolution, Kathakali also imbibed elements from folk and martial arts which existed at the time in Kerala. Characters with vividly painted faces and elaborate costumes re-enact stories from the Hindu epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana. Kathakali is featured in the award-winning Indo-French-German produced film Vaanaprastham. Kathakali is traditionally performed in the Hindu temple, but nowadays may also be seen in theatre performances.
Traditionally there are 101 classical Kathakali stories. Most of them were initially composed to last a whole night. Nowadays there is increasing popularity for concise versions of every story (lasting 2-4 hours instead of a whole night), which has been made by selecting the most dramatic or popular portions of individual stories. In spite of being a classical art form, Kathakali can be appreciated by novices and connoisseurs. This is because of the frequent use of “Lokadharmi” (or the elaboration of folk elements)which allows novices to gain a foothold when they start watching Kathakali. In contrast “Natyadharmi” (which is based on the Natyasastra-the science of Natya and is the more classical component of the art form) delights the experience of novices and connoisseurs alike. It is good to have an idea of the story being enacted. This will help the spectators to appreciate the “personalization” of characters by individual actors. In fact one of the major attractions for traditional Kathakali connoisseurs is their ability to distinguish and debate on the "personalizations" that each actor brings about in his depiction of the story. Often this is a challenging task as most the characters and stories are derived from Hindu epics, which are memorized for people from that region. Success/ failure of amateur Kathakali artistes is often decided by their sensibility to successfully personalize characters.The most popular stories enacted are Nala Charitam (a story from the Mahabharata, Duryodhana Vadham (a story from the Mahabharata), Kalyanasowgandhikam (the story of Bhima going to get flowers for Panchali, from the Mahabharata), Keechaka Vadham (another story of Bhima and Panchali, from the Mahabharata), Kiratham (Arjuna and Lord Shiva's fight, from the Mahabharata), Karna Shapadham (another story from Mahabharata).
Recently, as part of an attempt at popularizing the art, stories from other cultures, such as the story of Mary Magdalene from the Bible, and Shakespeare's King Lear have also been adapted into Kathakali scripts.
The language of the songs used for Kathakali is a mix of Malayalam and Sanskrit. called Manipravaalam. Even though the songs are set for “ragas” based on South Indian Classical Music” (Karnatic Music), there is a distinct style of rendition, which is known as the “sopanam” style. The Sopanam style incorporates the moods of temple songs which used to be sung (continues even now at some temples) at the time when Kathakali was born.
It is an interesting fact that though Kathakali is very popular outside Kerala, it is one of the least accepted art forms among Keralites. This art form has a high learning curve and lasts for hours. One of the theories is that in olden times the art form was not open to common man but only for aristocratic 'Raja' families and for Namboodiri casts. It was not open to even all "Nair" families though they belonged to "Savarna" caste. "Ottamthullal" on the otherhand is known as "common man's Kathakali".
Malayalees of north Kerala employ this art form. The Theyyam or Theyyattam is a popular ritual dance of north Kerala, particularly presented in the Kolathunadu (of the present Kannur and Kasargode districts). As a living cult with centuries old traditions, ritual and custom, it embraces almost all castes and classes of Hindu religion in this region. The term Theyyam is a corrupt form of daivam or God. It is a rare combination of dance and music and reflects important features of a tribal culture.The dance or invocation is generally performed in front of the village shrines. It is also performed in the houses as ancestor worship with elaborate rite and rituals.
There is no stage or curtain and other arrangements for the performance. The devotees would be standing or some of them would be sitting on a sacred tree in front of the shrine. In brief it is an open theatre. A performance of a particular deity according to its significance and hierarchy in the shrine continues for 12 to 24 hours with intervals. The chief dancer who propitiates the central deity of the shrine has to reside in the rituals. This may be an impact of Jainism and Buddhism. Further after sun set this particular dancer would not eat anything as legacy of Jainism. His make-up is done by specialists and other dancers. First part of the performance is usually known as vellattam or thottam. It is performed without proper make-up or decorative costume. Only a small red headdress is worn on this occasion.
The dancer along with drummers recites the particular ritual song, which describes the myths and legends of the particular ritual song, which describes the myths, and legends of the particular deity of the shrine or the folk deity to be propitiated. This is accompanied by the playing of folk musical instruments. After finishing this primary ritualistic part of the invocation the dancer returns to the green room. Again after a short interval he appears with proper make-up and costumes. There are different patterns of face-painting. Some of these patterns are called vairadelam, kattaram, kozhipuspam, kotumpurikam, and prakkezhuthu. Mostly primary and secondary colours are applied with contrast for face painting. It had effected certain stylization also. Then the dancer comes in front of the shrine and gradually “metamorphosises” as the particular deity of the shrine. He, after observation of certain rituals places the head-dress on his head and dances. In the background folk musical instruments like chenda, tuti, kuzhal and veekni are played with rhythm. All dancers take a shield and kadthala (sword) in their hands as continuation of the cult of weapon. Then the dancer circumambulates the shrine, runs in the courtyard dances. The Theyyam dance has different steps known as kalaasams. Each kalaasam is repeated systematically from first to eight step of footwork. A performance is a combination of playing of musical instruments, vocal recitation, dance and strange makeup and costumes. The stage-practices of Theyyam and its ritualistic observations make it one of the fascinating theatrical arts of India.
Mohiniyattam (also spelled as mohiniaattam, mohiniattom or mohiniyattam) is a traditional dance form of Malayalees from Kerala. A very graceful dance meant to be performed as a solo recital by women. The term Mohiniattam comes from the words "Mohini" meaning a woman who enchants onlookers and "aattam" meaning graceful and sensuous body movements. The word "Mohiniattam" literally means "dance of the enchantress".There are two stories of the Lord Vishnu disguised as a Mohini. In one, he appears as Mohini to lure the asuras (demons) away from the amrita (nectar of immortality) obtained during the churning of the palazhi or Ocean of Milk. In the second story Vishnu appears as Mohini to save Lord Shiva from the demon Bhasmasura. The name Mohiniaattam may have been coined after Lord Vishnu, and the main theme of the dance is love and devotion to God, with usually Vishnu or Krishna being the hero. Devadasis used to perform this in temples. But it also has elements of Koothu and Kottiyattom in it. it is a drama in dance and verse.
The dance which has influences and elements from two South Indian dance forms, the Bharatanatyam and Kathakali, was formulated in the court of king Swati Tirunal by Vadivelu, one of the Thanjavur Quartet. The dance involves the swaying of broad hips and the gentle movements of erect torso from side to side. This is reminiscent of the swinging of the palm leaves and the gently flowing rivers which abound Kerala, the land of Mohiniattam. There are approximately 40 different basic movements, known as 'atavukal', in Mohiniyattam.
The costume includes white sari embroidered with bright golden brocade (known as kasavu at the edges. The dance follows the classical text of Hastha Lakshanadeepika, which has elaborate description of Mudras (gestural expressions by the hand palm and fingers).
The vocal music of Mohiniattam involves variations in rhythmic structure known as ''chollu''. The lyrics are in Manipravala, a mixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam. The mohiniattam dance is performed to this accompaniment by the subtle gestures and footwork of the danseuse. The performer uses the eyes in a very coy yet sensual manner, the purpose being to enchant the mind without enticing the senses.
'Ottamthullal' is a type of performing art from Kerala, India. Also known as the "poor mans Kathakali", Ottamthullal was created by the Malayali poet Kunchan Nambiar, as an alternative to the Chakyar koothu, as a protest against the prevalent socio-political structure and prejudices of the region. In Ottamthullal, a single actor wears colorful costumes, while reciting thullal (dance songs), all the while acting and dancing.
'Chakyar Koothu' is a performing art form from Kerala. It is a kind of mono act and a traditional equivalent of a stand-up comic act. However, unlike the stand-up comic, the performer has a wider leeway in that he can heckle the audience. "Koothu" means dance - which is a misnomer, since there is minimal choreography involved in this art form; facial expressions are important, though. Traditionally, it was performed inside a Hindu temple and the performer begins with a prayer to the deity of the temple. He then goes on to narrate a verse in Sanskrit before explaining it in the vernacular Malayalam. The narration that follows touches upon various current events and societal factors with great wit and humor. Koothu was traditionally performed by the Chakyar community.
'Koodiyattam' is a traditional performing artform from Kerala. Recognised by UNESCO as a Human Heritage Art, this form of Sanskrit drama is considered to be at least 2000 years old. Kulasekhara Varma Cheraman Perumal, an ancient King of Kerala is known as the creator of Koodiyattam in the present form, and his Aattaprakaram is considered as the most authoritative publication on the art form.
'Velakali' is a ritual art (dance) of Kerala, mainly performed at temples in the festival time.The performers, clad in the traditional clothes and colourful headgear of the medieval Nair soldiers, engage in vigorous movements and dexterous sword play, to the accompaniment of an orchestra comprising the maddalam, ilathalam, kombu and kuzhal. Velakali originated in Ambalappuzha where Mathoor Panicker, chief of the Chempakasserri army, promoted it to boost the martial spirit of the people. The dance form is a regular feature of the annual festivities at the Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna temple in Alappuzha district. Extreme dedication and continuous practice are essential for this form of art.
'Kolkali' is a folk art performed in Kerala. The dance performers move in a circle, striking small sticks and keeping rhythm with special steps. The circle expands and contracts as the dance progress. The accompanying music gradually rises in pitch and the dance reaches its climax.
Many ancient family houses in Kerala have special snake shrines called Kavu. 'Sarpam Thullal' is usually performed in the courtyard of houses having snake shrines. This is a votive offering for family wealth and happiness. The dance is performed by members of a community called Pulluvar. In the first stage the pulluvan draws a kalam (the field) in with two or more twining snakes in the courtyard. An oil lit traditional lamp and one full measure (nirapara) each of paddy and rice are then placed in front of the kalam. In the second stage, the idol of the snake is brought out from the Kavu in a procession called thalapoli to the uproarious tumult of percussion instrument (panchavadyam).
'Duff Muttu' (also: Dubh Muttu) is an art form prevalent among Muslims in Kerala. Basically Duff or Dubh is a music instrument made of wood and ox skin. It is also called Thappitta. Participants play this and dance. In certain areas, instead of Duff or Dubh, Arabana is used. This was performed in Madina in Saudi Arabia.
'Oppana',is a popular form of social entertainment among the Muslim community of Kerala, prevalent all over, especially in the northern districts of Kasaragod,Kannur, Calicut and Malappuram.Oppana is generally presented by females, numbering about fifteen including musicians, on a wedding day. The bride dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments is the chief spectator who sits on a peetam, around which the singing and dancing take place. While they sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride using simple steps. Two or three girls begin the songs and the rest join in chorus. Sometime Oppana is also presented by males to entertain the bridegroom. It usually takes place just before the bridegroom leaves for the bride's residence where the Nikah (marriage) takes place or at the time he enters the Maniyara.Harmonium, Tabla, Ganjira and Elathaalam are the musical instruments employed for this performance. Only the Mappilapaattu will be sung on the occasion.
'Kuthu Ratheeb' is a religious ritual performed by some sections of the Muslim population in Kerala.Weapons are used in this ritual. Sometimes it spills over and actual injury is inflicted. Common acts in Kuthu Ratheeb include piercing the tongue, the ear and stomach with iron rods. Byths are hymns that are sung during Kuthu Ratheeb. There are more than twenty Byths and each are different.
'Mappila Paattukal' or Mappila Songs are folklore Muslim devotional songs in the Malayalam language. These are sung by Muslims (Mappilas) of Malabar. The first Gramaphone record in Malayalam Language was a Mappila song. In 1925, Gul Mohammed, father of celebrity artist KG Sathar recorded his voice in Gramaphone. Even though millions of Mappila songs were released thereafter on records, only few of them are considered as authentic Mappila Songs. Mappila songs are composed in colloquial Malayalam and are sung in a distinctive tune. They are composed in a mixture of Malayalam and Arabic and have a special charm of their own. They deal with diverse themes such as religion, love, satire, heroism, etc.
'Margamkali' is an entertainment form found among Suriyani Christian (Syrian Christian) folk in southern part of Kerala. Margamkali is a slant imitation of Sangamkali. The Christian soldiers used to pass time engaged in Margamkali and the subject usually is the arrival of Mar Thoma and his efforts to convert other people to Christianity in Kerala. Another art form is 'Parichamuttukali' [1] performed by christians of northern and central Kerala, which is basically a type of martial arts dance influenced by Kalaripayattu.
Vallamkali, also known as 'Snake Boat Race' literally means boat game (race) in Malayalam. It is the traditional boat race in Kerala. It is mainly conducted during the season of the harvest festival Onam in Autumn. Vallam Kali include races of many kinds of traditional boats of Kerala. The race of Chundan Vallam (snake boat) is the major item. Hence Vallam Kali is also known in English as Snake Boat Race and a major tourist attraction. Other types of boats which do participate in various events in the race are Churulan Vallam, Iruttukuthy Vallam, Odi Vallam, Veppu Vallam (Vaipu Vallam), Vadakkanody Vallam, Kochu Vallam. Nehru Trophy Boat Race is one the famous Vallam Kali held in Punnamada Lake in Alappuzha district of Kerala.Champakulam Moolam Boat Race is the oldest and most popular vallamkali (snake boat race) in Kerala. The race is held on river Pampa on the moolam day (according to the Malayalam Era M.E) of the Malayalam month Midhunam, the day of the installation of the deity at the Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna Temple.The Aranmula Boat Race takes place at Aranmula, near a temple dedicated to Lord Krishna and Arjuna. Thousands of people gather on the banks of the river Pampa to watch the snake boat races. Nearly 30 snake boats or "chundan vallams" participate in the festival.Payippad Jalotsavam is a three day water festival. Its conducted in Payippad Lake which is 35 km from Alappuzha district of Kerala state in. There is a close relation between this Payippad boat race and Subramanya Swamy Temple in Haripad.Indira Gandhi Boat Race is a boat race festival celebrated in the last week of December in the backwaters of Kochi, a city in Kerala. This boat race is one of the most popular vallamKali (snake boat race) in Kerala. This festival is conducted to promote Kerala tourism.
Malayalees celebrate a variety of festivals.The three major ones are given below. Other than the three given below Malayalees also celebrate Christmas and Bakrid.
Onam is an annual harvest festival, celebrated mainly in Kerala, although celebrations also occur among the diaspora. It is the foremost festival among the cultural repertoire of Malayalees, and falls during the month of Chingam (August-September as per the Gregorian calendar), the first month of the Malayalam calendar and lasts for ten days. Though it is essentially a harvest festival of Malayalees, mythologically it is linked to Malayalee-Hindu folktales. Like many other religious festivals in India, Onam is celebrated by people across all castes and faiths. Onam has been part of Malayalee psyche for centuries. There are records of Onam being celebrated during the Sangam Age. The earliest record of Onam is found during time of Kulasekhara Perumals around AD 800, soon after the Kalabhra Interregnum of Kerala History. Until the eighth century the political history is mostly unknown and is usually known as the Kalabhra Interregnum. Kalabhras were supposed to have been ruling Kerala until at least the sixth century. Kalabhras probably refers to Keralaputras. Who were they?. It was most probably the people of Mahabali.
Onam has two specific significance.
First it is the communal memory and celebration of past history as ennunciated in the Mahabali Legend. A story of how paradise was lost.
Second it is the celebration of the harvest tied with the memory of the golden age of prosperity.
It is believed that during those days the whole of Chingam was celebrated as Onam season. After the rain drenched month of Karkidakam with its privations, Chingam is a welcome month for people in the state of Kerala. The festival is the harbinger of spring — signalling the start of the harvest season. Onam epitomizes the newfound vigour and enthusiasm of the season, and is celebrated with traditional fervour with visit to temples, family get-togethers, gifting each other clothes called Onakkodi and lots of merry making.
Vishu is a festival celebrated by malayalees around the first day in the Malayalam month of Medam (April – May). This occasion signifies the Sun's transit to the zodiac Mesha Mesha Raasi as per Indian astrological calculations. Vishu is also considered as the Malayalam New Year day and thus the importance of this day to all Malayalees regardless of their religion or sect. Similarly the day is celebrated in almost all places in India by the Hindus albeit by different names. In Assam this day is called Bihu, in Punjab Baisakhi and in Tamil Nadu Puthandu. The word "Vishu" in Sanskrit means "equal". Therefore Vishu is more probably denoting one of the equinox days.
The festival is marked with offerings to the divine called 'Vishukkani'. The offerings consist of a ritual arrangement in the puja room of auspicious articles like raw rice, fresh linen, golden cucumber, betel leaves, arecanut, metal mirror, the yellow flowers konna (Cassia fistula), and a holy text and coins, in a bell metal vessel called uruli. A lighted bell metal lamp called nilavilakku is also placed alongside. This arrangement is completed the previous night. On the day of Vishu, the custom is to wake up at dawn and go to the puja room with the eyes closed so that the Vishukkani is the first thing one sees. Since the occasion marks the beginning of Malayalam New Year, it is also considered auspicious to read verses from Hindu Holy book Ramayanam after seeing the "Vishukkani". It is also believed by some that the page of the Ramayanam to which you open up will have a bearing on your life in the coming year. Devotees also throng the well-known temples like Sabarimala Ayyappan Teample, Guruvayur Sree Krishna temple to have a "Vishukkani Kazhcha" on the early hours of "Vishu" day.
pooram is an annual temple festival held after the summer harvest,celebrated by malayalees,mainly in north Kerala. The name has its origin in 'Poora Kali' which comes from the Malayalam language used by the people of Kerala,India). Most pooram festivals have at least one ornately decorated elephant parading in the procession. However, there are some, such as Aryankavu Pooram, near Shoranur that do not use the decorated elephant. The most famous Pooram is Thrissur Pooram as it has become a tourist destination for Europeans and North Americans. Other well known pooram festivals are Arattupuzha - Peruvanam Pooram, Nenmara vallangi vela, Wadakkancherry pooram and Edakkunni Uthram Vilakku (often called Vela).
Thrissur Pooram is the most colourful temple festival of Kerala.Thrissur Pooram attracts large masses of devotees and spectators from all parts of the State and even outside.Celebrated in Medom (April-May) it consists of processions of richly caparisoned elephants from various neighbouring temples to the Vadakumnathan temple, Thrissur. The most impressive processions are those from the Krishna Temple at Thiruvambadi and the Devi Temple at Paramekkavu which is quite a significant event for its devotees.
Main Article:Cuisine of Kerala.
The cuisine of Malayalees are linked in all its richness to the history, geography and culture of the land. Most of the non-vegetarian dishes are spicy. The food habits in Travancore and Malabar (southern and northern Kerala) are quite different to each other.Kerala is known for its traditional sadhyas, a vegetarian meal served with boiled rice and a host of side-dishes. The sadhya is complemented by payasam, a sweet milk dessert native to Kerala. The sadhya is, as per custom, served on a banana leaf. The southern Kerala dishes are often spiced with garlic, whereas in North Kerala garlic is generrally avoided in all vegetarian dishes. Traditional dishes include sambar, aviyal, kaalan, theeyal, thoran, injipully, pulisherry, appam, kappa (tapioca), puttu (steam cake), and puzhukku. Coconut is an essential ingredient in most of the food items and is liberally used. Malayalees are also acknowledged meat eaters, which include Beef, Pork and Mutton (Goat).
Puttu is a culinary specialty in Kerala. It is a steamed rice cake which is a favourite breakfast of most Malayalees. It is served with either brown chickpeas cooked in a spicy gravy, papadams and boiled small green lentils, or tiny ripe yellow Kerala plantains. In the highlands there is also a variety of puttu served with paani (the boiled-down syrup from sweet palm toddy) and sweet boiled bananas. For steaming the puttu, there is a special utensil called ''Puttu Kutti''. It consists of two sections. The lower bulkier portion is where the water for steaming is stored. The upper detachable leaner portion which is separated from lower portion with peforated lids so as to allow the steam to pass through and bake the rice powder which has been filled. The upper portion of the leaner section is covered with a peforated cup shaped lid once it is filled with rice powder.
Malayalees have their own lethal form of martial arts called Kalaripayattu. This type of martial arts was used as defensive mechanism (mainly by men from Nair families) against intruders . In ancient times, disputes between ''(naaduvazhis or Vazhunors)nobles'' were also settled by the outcome of a Kalaripayattu tournament. This ancient martial art is claimed as ''the mother of all martial arts'' – even the Chinese Shaolin chuan from the famous Shaolin temple traces its ancestry to Bodhi Dharma, an Indian Buddhist monk who was a Kalaripayattu expert.[25] The word "kalari" can be traced to ancient Sangam literature.[26] The martial tradition of Kalarippayattu is also dated to ancient Dravidian traditions.[27] Phillip Zarrilli, a professor at the University of Exeter and one of the few Western authorities on kalaripayattu, estimates that kalarippayattu dates back to at least the 12th century CE. The historian Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai attributes the birth of Kalarippayattu to an extended period of warfare between the Cheras and the Cholas in the 11th century CE. What eventually crystalised into this style is thought to have been a product of existing South Indian styles of combat, combined with techniquies brought by migration from the north along the western coast. What eventually crystallized as kalarippayattu combined indigenous Dravidian techniques with the martial practices and ethos brought by brahman migrations from Saurastra and Konkan down the west Indian coast into Karnataka and eventually Kerala. Discovery channel notes that Kalarippayattu may be one of the oldest martial arts in existence.[25] The oldest western reference to Kalarippayattu is a 16th century travelogue of Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese explorer. The Southern style, which places more emphasis on open hand combat has mainly been practiced by the Tamil speaking regions, at least for the last few centuries.[29]
There are many different styles of Kalarippayattu. If one looks at the way attacks and defences are performed, one can distinguish three main schools of thought: the northern styles, the central styles, and the southern styles. The best introduction to the differences between these styles is the book of Luijendijk. Luijendijk uses photographs to show several Kalarippayattu exercises and their applications. Each chapter in his book references a representative of each of the three main traditions.
Northern kalarippayattu (practiced mainly in the northern Malabar region of Kozhikode and Kannur) places comparatively more emphasis on weapons than on empty hands. Masters in this system are usually known as ''gurukkal'' (and only occasionally as ''asan''), and were often given honorific titles, especially Panikkar. By oral and written traditions, Parasurama, the sixth Avatar of Vishnu, is believed to be the founder of the art.
Northern kalarippayattu is distinguished by its ''meippayattu'' - physical training and use of full-body oil massage. The system of treatment and massage, and the assumptions about practice are closely associated with Ayurveda. The purpose of medicinal oil massage is to increase the practitioners' flexibility, to treat muscle injuries incurred during practice, or when a patient has problems related to the bone tissue, the muscles, or nerve system. The term for such massages is ''thirumal'' and the massage specifically for physical flexibility ''chavutti thirumal''.
There are several lineages (''sampradayam''), of which the ''arappukai'' is the most common nowadays. There are schools which teach more than one of these traditions. Some traditional kalaris around Cannanore, for example, teach a blend of ''arappukai'', ''pillatanni'', and ''katadanath'' styles.[30]
In southern styles of kalarippayattu (practised mainly in old Travancore inluding the present Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu), practice and fighting techniques emphasize empty hands and application from the first lesson. In the southern styles the stages of training are Chuvatu (solo forms), Jodi (partner training/sparring), Kurunthadi (short stick), Neduvadi (long stick), Katthi (knife), Katara (dagger), valum parichayum (sword and shield), Chuttuval (flexible long sword), double sword and Marmma and kalari grappling. The southern styles of kalarippayattu have been practised primarily by a section Nairs and Ezhavas of kerala and a small section of Nadars, Kallars, Thevars, of estwhile Travancore areas.
Zarrilli refers to southern kalarippayattu as ''ati murai'' (the 'law of hitting') or ''marma ati'' (hitting the vital spots). The preliminary empty-hand techniques of ati murai are known as ''Adithada'' (hit/defend). Marma ati refers specifically to the application of these techniques to vital spots. Weapons may include long staffs, short sticks, and the double deer horns. Southern styles of kalarippayattu are not usually practiced in special roofed pits but rather in the open air, or in an unroofed enclosure of palm branches. Masters are known as asaan rather than gurukkal. The founder and patron saint is believed to be the rishi Agasthya.
Medical treatment in southern styles of kalarippayattu—which ''does'' include massage—is identified with Dravidian Siddha medicine which is as sophisticated as—though distinct from—Ayurveda. The Dravidian Siddha medical system is also known as ''Siddha Vaidyam'' and, like ati murai, is attributed to the rishi Agasthya. Active suppression of Nairs in southern Kerala led to the virtual extinction of their southern ''dronamballi sampradayam'' by the mid 1950s.
The central style (practiced mainly in Thrissur, Malappuram, Palakkad and certain parts of Ernakulam districts is 'a composite' from both the northern and southern styles that includes northern ''meippayattu'' preliminary exercises, southern emphasis on empty-hand techniques, and its own distinctive techniques, which are performed within floor drawings known as kalam.
'Marmashastram' stresses on ability of ''Marmam''.Marmam are pressure points of the human body. It is claimed that experienced practitioners can disable or kill their opponents by a mere touch in a Marmam. Practitioners of Kalarippayattu, learn about ''Marmashastram'', which are also used for ''marma treatment (marmachikitsa)''. It is said to be as sophisticated as the ''uzhichil'' treatment of Ayurveda. This system of marma treatment is part of ''Sidha Vaidhyam'', whose origin is attributed to ''Sage Agasthya'' and his disciples.
The earliest mention of the concept marmam also dates back to the ''Rig Veda'' where Indra is said to have defeated Vritra by attacking his ''marman'' with his vajra.[31] References to ''marman'' also found in the ''Atharva Veda''.[32] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practised attacking or defending vital points.Zarrilli, Phillip B. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.[33] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.
Kalaripayattu is taught for both men and women.
Only few famous malayalees in specific fields are listed here.For a more complete collection of famous malayalees in all fields, please look at List of famous Keralites here.
Malayalam is a literature abundant language.This is due to the malayalees interest in literature. Malayalam has produced some of the best writers and poets, who are known internationally. Thunchat Ezhuthachan (16th century) is one of the giants among Malayalam poets, was also known as the father of malayalam language. Some of the other famous poets include Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon and ulloor S parameswara Iyer etc. They are regarded as the triumvirates (Kavithrayangal) of modern Malayalam literature. Some famous malayalee writers are Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, O. V. Vijayan, M.T.Vasudevan Nair,T. Padmanabhan, Changampuzha Krishna Pillai etc.
Malayalam cinema boasts of many talented artists. Starting from Sathyan' and Prem Nazir, through Jayan and finally to the megastars Mohanlal and Mammootty, Malayalam cinema has travelled a long way. While Sathyan portrayed strict characters, Prem Nazeer played more soft and romantic characters. The characters presented by Jayan were full of masculine acts and thrilled the audience of that era and this era as well. Today Mammootty and Mohanlal represents the face of malayalam cinema to the world.
A large number of Social Reforms have been undertaken in the state of Kerala.Of these reformers Sree Narayana Guru stands apart. Narayana Guru(1856 - 1928), also known as Sree Nārāyana Guru Swami, was a saint, sage and social reformer of India. Gurudeva, as he is fondly called, revolted against casteism and worked on propagating new values of freedom in spirituality and of social equality, thereby transforming the society in Kerala.
Kerala is the land where the first officially elected Communist government came into existence.E. M. S. Namboodiripad was the first elected communist Kerala chief minister.Kerala has produced many social politicians such as E.K. Nayanar etc.K.Karunakaran is one of the important political figures in Kerala.V.S. Achuthanandan is the present chief minister of Kerala.
P.T. Usha was born in Payyoli, Kerala. Usha's success story begins from the 1982 Asiad in which she won two silver medals in 100 meters and 200 meters respectively. She won 17 medals — 13 gold, 3 silver and a bronze in four Asian Track and Field Championship during the period from 1983-89.Usha has won 101 international medals so far. She is employed as an officer in the Southern Railways. In 1985, she was conferred the Padma Shri and the Arjuna award. She is also the recipient of Arjuna Award ,1984.Another rising Indian Malayalee athlete is Anju Bobby George.Anju Bobby George made history when she won the bronze medal in Long Jump at the 2003 World Championships in Athletics in Paris. With this achievement, she became the first Indian athlete ever to win a medal in a World Championships in Athletics clearing 6.70 m. She went on to win the silver medal at the IAAF World Athletics Final in 2005, a performance she considers her best.
Malayalees have devised their own small associations in those regions, popularly known as 'Malayala Samajam' or 'Kerala Samajam'. Issues of foreign Malayalees are catered by this type of associations.
Another major problem faced by Malayalees is unemployment. Kerala is not a fully industrialized state. Compared to States like Gujarat, Maharashtra or Tamil Nadu, Kerala is low industrialized. The resources of Kerala is not fully utilized. Thus, Malayalees find it hard to get a job in their own state.This leads them to try their luck in foreign countries, where they have to face much more hardships. Although, there are ''employment exchanges'', they cannot assure job for every Malayalees instantly. Back in 80’s and 90’s the issue of unemployment was so grave that the Malayalam literature and cinemas of that era almost all time pictured the problem of unemployment.
Today, Kerala is on path of industrialization. Job opportunities are getting increased by every month. By advent of 'Smart City' at Kochi job opportunities for many educated youngsters are guaranteed.
1. .
2. .
3. Ethnologue report for Malayalam
4. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
5. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
6. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
7. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
8. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
9. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
10. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
11. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
12. Neither Newton nor Leibniz, ''canisius.edu''
13. From Vedic Martial Arts to Aikido, ''veda.harekrsna.cz''
14. A travel feature on the ancient Kerala art of Kalaripayattu, ''rediff.com''
15. Kalaripayattu, the traditional martial art, ''enskalari.org.in''
16. Kerala - Gateway to Paradise, ''kerala.cc''
17. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; Weil 1982; Menachery 1998.
18. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
19. Architecture of Kerala
20. .
21. .
22. .
23. .
24. .
25. Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
26. Suresh, P. R. (2005). ''Kalari Payatte - The martial art of Kerala''.
27. Subaltern Sports: Politics and Sports in South Asia By James H. Mills. Published 2005, Anthem Press. Subject: Archaeology /Anthropology. ISBN 1843311674
28. Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
29. Phillip B. Zarrilli, When the Body Becomes All Eyes
30. Luijendijk 2005
31. Mariana Fedorova (1990). ''Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin''.
32. Subhash Ranade (1993). ''Natural Healing Through Ayurveda'' (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.
33. G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''.
★ Official site of Kerala Government
★ Malayalam Resource Centre
★ Malayalee Web Page Collection
★ Melam - Eclectic Links Around Malayalam
★ Joshua Project: Malayali People Cluster
Geographic Distribution and Population
Emblem of Kerala Government
According to the Indian census of 1991, there were 28,096,376 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala making up 96.6% of the total population (up from 95.99% in 1981). There were a further 38,392 (4.8%) in Pondicherry, 43,678 (84.5%) in Lakshadweep, and a further 2,198,730 in other parts of India (Mother Tongue figures, active use of language unknown). In all, Malayalees made up 3.59% of all Indians in 1991. Of the total 30,377,176 Malayalam speakers in India in 1991, a total of 30,325,637 spoke the standard dialects, 17,295 spoke the Yerava dialect and 34,244 spoke non-standard regional variations like Eranadan.Census of India Newsletter, ''censusindia.net'' 28.85% of all Malayalam speakers in India fluently spoke another second language. 19.64% of the total knew 3 or more languages. 26,073 Malayalam speakers in Andaman and Nicobar made up 9.29% of it's population in 1991. Large numbers of Malayalees have settled in Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mumbai (Bombay), and Chennai (Madras).A large number of Malayalis have emigrated to the Middle East, Europe and North America. There were 79,860 speakers of Malayalam in USA, according to the 2000 census. The 2001 Canadian census reported 7,070 people who had Malayalam as their mother tongue. There were 2,968 Malayalam speakers in Australia in 2001.Community Relations Commission, For a multicultural NSW, ''crc.nsw.gov.au'' The 2006 New Zealand census reported 2,139 speakers.Statistics New Zealand, ''stats.govt.nz'' 134 Malayalam speaking households were reported in 1956 in Fiji. There are also considerable malayali population in Arab regions. Especially in Dubai, where there is the biggest Kerala Diaspora of the world. There are around 250,000 they make up most of the Indians in Dubai.
Races In Kerala
The Negritos seem to be the earliest inhabitants of Kerala, as of South India in general.[4]The physical characteristics are curly hair, black skin, round head and broad nose.The descendants of this race are in tribes called the 'Uralis', 'Paniyas', 'Kadars' and 'Muthuvas'.[4]The Uralis are the primitive artisans of Wayanad whose pot-making technique is very primitive as no potter's wheel is used.[4]Marriage by elopement is very common among the Paniyas.[4]The Kadars know little or no agriculture.[4]The Muthuvas rear cattle, but instead of milking it, they sell it.The ''Proto-Australoids'', who came long after Negritos, are distinguished by their long head and flat nose.Their descendants are the 'Kurichiyas' and 'Mulla Kurumbas' of Wayanad.[4]Kurichiyas are matrilineal, having large matrilineal households in a cluster of huts known as ''Mittam''.Mulla Kurumbas are patrilineal in nature.The Dravidians, who came still later, are represented by communities like Nairs, Ezhavas, etc.Namputhiries represent the spearhead of Aryan penetration to the deep south.There has been considerable mingling of Aryan and Dravidian strains in the case of the Nair community because of socially sanctioned practice of Namputhiri males marrying Nair women.[4]Though there has been an infusion of Assyrian, Arabic and Jewish blood in case of the Christian, Muslim and Jew communities, the basic stock is indegenous.[4]
Communities
The following are the major communities among Malayalees:
Ezhava
Main Article: Ezhava.
'Ezhava' is the largest and one of the major progressive communities in Kerala. Ezhavas are also found amongst the Malayalee Diaspora around the world. Ezhavas are today a social group sharing a common history from the pre-social reform era, when caste was an integral part of the political, economic, legal and social order across the erstwhile kingdoms of Travancore and Kochi that form the present day Kerala State. Historically, Ezhavas never found a place in the four-tier caste system of the old Hindu community. Buddhist origins and/or migration from the island of Sri Lanka could have led to a situation like this.
Ezhavas, today, form the majority of the Hindus and about 29% of the total population of the State. It would be most appropriate to term Ezhavas as a 'community' that shares a common social history, largely unknown to each other on account of its demographic enormity. Arranged marriages within the community primarily retain the social integrity and identity of the Ezhavas. Sree Narayana Guru, the religious teacher and social reformer of early 20th century, paved the way for improvement in the spiritual freedom and other social conditions of the downtrodden communities expecially Ezhava community. Also the Ezhava community's largely undisputed acceptance of Sree Narayana Guru as their spiritual and/or social and intellectual mentor and guiding spirit adds a major and unifying facet to community integrity and identity today. Many Ezhavas were notable as Ayurvedic/Sidha physicians, Warriors and traders. In Malabar Ezhavas are known as Thiyyas. In fact one of the early translations of Ashtanga Hridaya (a celebrated Sanskrit treatise on Ayurveda) to Malayalam was by an Ezhava physician, Kayikkara Govindan Vaidyar.
Mappilas
Main Article: Mappila.
The 'Mappilas' historically called ''Moplahs'' in Malayalam are a Muslim and Syrian Malabar Nasrani community in Kerala and neighbouring states and territories of India. They form the second largest community in kerala.
The word ''mappila'' is derived from the old(Pure) Malayalam words Amma and pilla meaning ''Child of Mother'' The Muslim Mappilas are the earliest known Indian Muslim community, having existed since the 8th century AD, when Arab merchants who had long been trading with the Chera kingdom converted them to Islam, based on the preachings of monotheism by Muhammad in Arabia.
They propagated their faith along the Malabar Coast.
In the 16th and 17th centuries they are known for their fight against Portuguese inquisition and conversion to Christianity of native people of malabar coast. 19th and early 20th centuries, Mappilas were known for active armed attacks against the British, including the 1921 Moplah rebellion.
Mappilas fought hand in hand with their Hindu brothers to stop European invaders and protected coast of Kerala from cultural and religious conversions. Their cooperation and intimacy with Hindu community is well known. During Zamorins, Mappilas commanded good positions in the rule. It is interesting to notice that, the letter handed over to zamorin from the Portuguese King was in Arabic language.
During the Moplah Rebellion,arsonists took to the street, burning and destroying government property. The initial focus was on the government, but when the limited presence of the government was eliminated, Moplahs turned their full attention on the Hindus. One Mohommed Haji was proclaimed the Caliph of the Moplah Khilafat and flags of Islamic Caliphate were flown. Ernad and Walluvanad were declared Khilafat kingdoms.
By the end of 1921 the situation was brought back under control. The British administration raised a special quasi-military (or Armed Police) battalion, the Malabar Special Police (MSP). These police recruits were trained by the British Indian Army, and during its initial days the recruits were non-Muslims. The MSP attacked the rioters, eventually subduing them.
Arrested Muslim rioters were to be transferred to the Central Prison in Pothanur (near Coimbatore). They were bundled into a Goods/Freight wagon, and the train started its journey. At Pothanur it was found out that the jail was full to its maximum capacity, and the prisoners were ordered to be taken back. During this time, 66 of the 100 or so rioters had suffocated to death in the closed iron wagon. In recent years, many Kerala Muslims have found work in the Middle East (especially in Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates ), sending remittances home to support families in Kerala. This makes Kerala one of the main contributors of foreign exchange to Indian economy.Most Mappila Muslims follow the Shafi'i school of Muslim Jurisprudence (in contrast to the Hanafi school followed by most South Asian Muslims). The Pakistan Movement (which drew its strongest support from Muslims in northern India) received a lukewarm reception amongst Muslims in Kerala, and relatively few Mappilas migrated to Pakistan following partition.
Nair
Main Article: Nair.
Nair Lady (Panapilla Amma Srimathi Lakshmi Pilla Kochamma of the Chempakaraman Arumana Ammaveedu Family of the Thampi clan and wife of Visakham Thirunal Maharajah of Travancore
'Nair', sometimes spelt ''Nayar'' is the name of a Hindu caste from the southern Indian state of Kerala. The Nair caste was a martial nobility, similar to the Samurai of Japan.[12][13][14][15] The Nairs figure prominently in the history of Kerala and were feudal lords and warriors long before the arrival of the Namboothiris. After the arrival of the Namboothiris, the Nairs retained their ruling and martial professions , although the ''Namboothiris'' regarded them (and every other caste in Kerala) as Sudras. However, the Nairs were considered to be ''Savarna'' Sudras.[16]
Ancient South Indian history, historians, and foreign travelers refer to the Nairs as a dignified martial nobility. The origin of the Nair caste is uncertain. The earliest reference to Nairs comes from the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. In his accounts of ancient India, he refers to the "Nayars of Malabar" and the "Kingdom of Chera".Aiya, V. Nagam: "Travancore State Manual", pages 232, 238 Some anthropologists are of the view that the Nairs are not indigenous to Kerala, as many customs and traditions distinguish them from other Keralites. Some examples are their own form of inheritance (Marumakkathayam), warfare (Kalaripayattu), Gods and Goddesses (''Nagas'' or serpents, and Bhadhrakali), and numerous sub-castes and surnames. There is also a belief that the Nairs are Nagas. The Travancore State Manual states that there were indeed serpent-worshipping Nagas in Kerala who fought with the Namboodiris till they reached a consensus. The affinity of the Nair community with serpents and serpent worship is indisputable and might have given rise to their reputation of having a Naga origin. Naga worship might have also given rise to the mythical version of Nairs being Kshatriyas belonging to the Serpent dynasty (Nagavansham) who removed their sacred thread and migrated south to escape the wrath of a vengeful Parasurama. According to Chatambi Swamigal, who interpreted old Tamil texts, the Nairs were Naka (Naga or Snake) Lords who ruled as feudal lords in the Chera kingdom. The ''Kerala Mahatmayam'' calls them the progeny of Namboothiri men with Deva, Rakshasa and Gandharva women.
Another theory is that Nairs are actually the descendants of the Newars of Nepal, who migrated to Kerala. There are many facts to support this view. One of the most prominent arguments is the distinct pagoda-like architectural style of Nair Tharavaadus and Temples. In addition, there is the Marumakkathaayam system of inheritance (a similar system is also practiced by the Newars).Kerala History, ''keralaonlinetourism.com'' One finds mention of the Nairs during the reign of the King Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1020-1102) of the second Chera dynasty, when the Chera Kingdom was attacked by the Cholas. The Nairs fought by forming suicide squads (Chavers) against the invading force. It is not clear whether the Cheras themselves were Nairs, or if the Cheras employed the Nairs as a warrior class.
The Nairs lost their supremacy gradually after the collapse of the second Chera kingdom while the Namboothiris gathered affluence and power. However, Nairs continued to be feudal lords and owned large estates till the time the Land Reforms Ordinance was enacted by Kerala State Government, which set a ceiling on the land holdings that a person or family could possess. It is also contended that the Nairs were migrants from Tulu Nadu. Manual of Madras Administration Vol II (printed in 1885) notes that the Nadavas are the same people as the Nairs of Malabar and the Bunts of Southern Tulu nadu.
Nasrani
Main Article: Syrian Malabar Nasrani.
The 'Syrian Malabar Nasrani' people are an ethnic group from Kerala. The term refers to those who became Christians in the Malabar coast in the earliest days of Christianity, including the natives and the Jewish diaspora in Kerala.Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; & Koder S. 1973; T.K. Velu Pillai, 1940 They follow a unique Hebrew-Syriac Christian tradition which includes several Jewish elements along with some Hindu customs. Their heritage is Syriac-Keralite, their culture South Indian, their faith St. Thomas Christian, and their language Malayalam.Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956 Much of their Jewish tradition has been forgotten, especially after the Portuguese invasion of Kerala in the early 1500s.Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956 The Nasrani people are also called ''Syrian-Malabar Christians'', ''Saint Thomas Christians'' or even as ''Syrian Christians''. They are also called as ''Nasrani Mapillas''. According to Hermann Gundert (who wrote the first Malayalam dictionary), the term 'mapilla' was a title used to denote semitic immigrants from West Asia. Thus the term Mapilla was used to denote both, the Arab descendants and Christian-Jewish descendants in Kerala. The descendants of Arabs were, and still are, called ''Jonakan Muslim Mappila'', while the descendants of Syrian-Jewish Christians are called ''Nasrani Mappilas''.Gantz Brothers, Land of the Perumals 1863 and the descendants of Halakhik Cochin Jews are called as ''Juda Mappila''.Bindu Malieckal (2005); The Syrian Malabar Nasranis are comprised of some of the earliest people who joined Christianity, including the native people of Kerala and many Malabar Jews from the Jewish diaspora of the pre-Christian era who were settled in Kerala.Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; & Koder S. 1973; T.K. Velu Pillai, 1940 The community is also comprised of the 3rd and 9th century Syriac Christian settlements in Kerala. The 3rd century settlers are today known as ''Knanaya Nasranis''.Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Vellian Jacob 2001; Menachery G, 1973, 1998; Poomangalam C.A. 1998; Leslie Brown, 1956
Since Hinduism was the predomininant local religion, many writers claim that the first converts were mainly the Brahmin's of Kerala called the namboothiris, but others argue that the claims were made by the later Christians to obtain special caste status in the prevailing caste system of India. A notable point is that the Namboothiri history claims their origin in Kerala in the seventh century CE,Veluthat, K. 1978 while Christianity in India originated in the first century CE. Thus the community consists of people from ethnic groups of Kerala including some Brahmins, the pre-Christian era Jewish diaspora, different trading diaspora of Muzirs, local Dravidian converts, Syriac Christian settlers and the Knanayas.Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Vellian Jacob 2001; Tisserant, E. (1957) Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye; Menachery G 1973, 1998; Leslie Brown, 1956; Poomangalam C.A. 1998
Namboothiri
'Namboothiris' are the upper class Brahmins of Kerala and form a tiny minority. They perform Pooja in temples of Kerala based on Tantra Vidhi. The other temple related activities known as Kazhakam are performed by Ambalavasis. There are also other brahmins called Sharada Brahmins, who have their own temples, mutts, ashrams, sannyasi sanghams and guru lineages. The unique thing about Namboothiris is that they follow the poorva mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy unlike uttara mimamsa or vedanta school followed by most of the South Indians.
Namboothiri is said to be either derived from Nambu meaning sacred (in Prakruta Tenugu) and Thiri which is a suffix added to the names of certain upper castes in Kerala. Another view is that it is derived from Nam (Veda) and Poorayathi (who imparts).Brahmins are supposed to have migrated from North. However, it is unclear if all of them migrated after various South Indian kingdoms started taking shape. According to modern Keralite Historians the period of the first arrival of Namboothiris in Kerala happened around 5th-7th century AD after the fall of the first Chera Kingdom (Which is debatable as therewere Namboothiri Brahmin settlments in Kerala as early as 2nd century BC as said in Sangam literature, Dandi's story, etc.), and settled in 32 gramams(villages) through out Kerala, may be called the original Namboothiris. Most of them live in central Kerala and a few, in north and south kerala.
Cochin Jews
Main Article: Cochin Jews.
'Cochin Jews', also called ''Malabar Jews'' (''Malabar Yehudan'') are the ancient Jews and their descendants of the erstwhile state of Kingdom of Cochin which includes the present day port city of Kochi.[17] They traditionally spoke Judeo-Malayalam, a form of the Malayalam tongue, native to the state of Kerala, in India. Several rounds of immigration of the Jewish diaspora into Kerala led to a diversity amongst the Cochin Jews. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973. Some sources say that the earliest Jews were those who settled in the Malabar coast during the times of King Solomon of Israel, and after the Kingdom of Israel split into two.[18] They are sometimes referred to as the "black Jews". The Paradesi Jews, also called "White Jews", settled later, coming to India from European and Middle Eastern nations such as Holland and Spain, and bringing with them the Ladino language. Spanish and Portuguese Jews (Sephardim) settled in Goa in the 15th century, but this settlement eventually disappeared. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Cochin had an influx of Jewish settlers from the Middle East and North Africa.Jews came to Kerala and settled as early as 700 BC for trade. An old, but not particularly reliable, tradition says that Jews of Cochin came in mass to Cranganore (an ancient port, near Cochin) after the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E. A chieftain by the name of Joseph Rabban, according to local tradition, was granted a principality over the Jews of Cochin by the Chera Emperor of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravivarman II. His descendents had, in effect, their own principality (called Anjuvannam in Indian sources) for many centuries until a chieftainship dispute broke out between two brothers (one of them named Joseph Azar) in the 15th century. The dispute led neighboring princes to dispossess them. In 1524, the Muslims, backed by the ruler of Calicut (today called Kozhikode), attacked the Jews of Cranganore on the pretext that they were tampering with the pepper trade. Most Jews fled to Cochin and went under the protection of the Hindu Raja there. He granted them a site for their own town that later acquired the name "Jew Town" (by which it is still known).Unfortunately for the Jews of Cochin, the Portuguese occupied Cochin in this same period and indulged in persecution of the Jews until the Dutch displaced them in 1660. The Dutch Protestants were tolerant, and the Jews prospered. In 1795 Cochin was occupied by and came under the control of the British Empire. In the 19th century, Cochin Jews lived in the towns of Cochin, Ernakulam, Aluva andNorth Paravur.The Jews of Cochin did not adhere to the Talmudic prohibition, followed by other Orthodox Jews, against public singing by women, and therefore have a rich tradition of Jewish prayers and narrative songs performed by women in Judeo-Malayalam. The Jewish Music Research Center at Hebrew University has compiled a CD of these songs.
Architecture
Most of Malayalees live in Kerala – one of the heaviest raining places in India. Thus, the architecture form they adopted suited for this condition. Typical building structures in Kerala are adopted for water conservation i.e., to conserve water received from rain. In hot season, these structures provide natural air-conditioning too.
Traditional houses of Kerala are built in accordance with the principles of `Thatchushastra’ (Science of carpentry) and ‘Vastushastra’, the ancient Indian science of architecture. Architecture of Kerala is amalgam of influences both from foreign and Indian origin. Influence of Chinese and Japanese architecture is felt strongly.[19] These are clearly evident from the gabled roofs and all wood, coconut frond thatched constructions. One of the typical architectural structures once widely used by Malayalees is discussed below:
Nalukettu
A typical Nalukettu structure
Nalukettu is a quadrangular building constructed after following the Thatchushastra. In past, Nalukettu was the house in which Malayalees lived. It was a typical house which was flanked by out-houses and utility structures.
Nalukettu is constructed within a large compound. It was called Nalukettu because it consisted of four wings around a central courtyard called Nadumuttom. The four wings contained rooms to house a large joint family. The Vadakkani or the northern block had two rooms which were the kitchen and the dining room. The Padinjath which was the western block had three rooms of which the middle one was the strong room and the others were bed rooms. The middle portion of the eastern and the southern blocks were for visitors. On all four sides of the inner courtyard were verandahs. The entrance to the house was through a gate house called Padippura.
The house has a quadrangle in the center. The quadrangle is in every way the center of life in the house very useful for the performance of rituals.
The mansion is created using wood and tiles, central open courtyard and wondrous architecture. The interiors of the house are tastefully decorated with a wealth of antiques made from teak, sandal wood, mahogany etc.The traditional `Nalukettu’, barring the foundation and floor is made of carved and slotted wood and has a close resemblance to East Asian gabled and thatched structures. In later years, tiles replaced the coconut fronds.
The enclosed courtyard or `ankanam’ is usually sunk and therefore called `kuzhi (pit) ankanam’. The protruding roofs formed shady verandas and protected the rooms from direct sunlight, keeping them cool even on the hottest of days. The inner verandah around the ankanam is open.The outer verandahs along the four sides of the Nalukettu are enclosed differently. While both the western and eastern verandahs are left open the northern and southern verandahs are enclosed or semi-enclosed.
The lay out of these homes were simple, and catered to the dwelling of the large number of people usually part of a tharavaadu. Ettukettu (eight halled with two central courtyards) or Pathinarukettu (sixteen halled with four central courtyards) are the more elaborate forms of the same architecture. Every structure faces the sunlight, and in some well designed nalukettu, there is excellent ventilation. Temperatures, even in the heat of summer, are markedly lower within the nalukettu.
Example of a Nalukettu structure is 'Mattancherry Palace'.
Tharavadu
Main Article: Tharavadu
A Malayalee woman wearing a ''neryathu'' known as Set Sari.
Tharavadu is a system of joint family practised by Malayalees, especially castes like Namboothris, Nairs and Ezhavas. Each Tharavadu has a unique name. As joint families grew and established independent settlements, the Sakhas (branches) modified the names in a such way that the main Tharavadu names are identifiable, yet Sakha (or "Thavazhi", i.e. Thay Vazhi which means "Through Mother") had a distinct name. For communities like Nairs, 'Tharavad name' is identified through their Mothers house ('Thavazhi') but some other communities like Namboothiris the names are identified by their fathers 'Tharavadu'. For ezhavas, depending upon the social status of the family, the names are identified by their father's or mother's 'Tharavadu'.Some Tharavadus were the protectors and rulers of the Desam (place) that they were in and a reporting relationship emerged over a period to a "Naadu Vaazhi" (Ruler of the land). Naadu is a group of Desams. Since the tharavadu had a brand name of its own, it had vested upon the members a sense of responsibility to conduct themselves in manner befitting the traditions. The Tharavadu was administered by 'Karnavar', the senior most male member of the family. He will be the eldest maternal uncle of the family as well. The members of the Tharavadu consisted of mother, daughters, sons, sisters and brothers. The fathers and husbands had only very minimal role to play in the affairs of the Tharavadu. It was a true matrilineal affair. The Karanavar took all major decisions. He was usually autocratic. However, the consent of the eldest female member of the family was taken before implementing the decisions. This eldest female member would be his maternal grandmother, own mother, mother's sister, his own sister or a sister through his maternal lineage. Since the lineage was through the female members, the birth of a daughter was always welcomed.Each tharavadu also has a Bhara Devatha (clan deity) revered by those in the particular tharavadu. Temples were built to honour these deities. A Kalarideivam/devatha or deity presiding over the practice of Kalaripayattu (martial art form in Kerala) was also honoured.
Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the Majority World.[1][2] Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhava families in Travancore and Cochin, Ezhavas in north kerala and Muslims around Kannur used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''marumakkathayam'' which has in the recent years (post Indian independence) ceased to exist. Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and some Ezhavas follow ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.[22] Kerala's gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Majority World.[23][24] However, this too is coming under threat, from such forces as patriarchy-enforced oppression of women.
Music
Panchari Melam
Panchavadyam
Malayalees have derived their own form of Indian classical music. It is given the name 'Sopanam'.Sopanam is a form of Indian classical music developed in the temples of Kerala in the wake of the increasing popularity of the Jayadeva's 'Gita Govinda' or 'Ashtapathi'. Sopanasangitham is sung by the side of the steps (Sopanam) of Temple, with the accompaniment of the drum called 'Idakka'. The sopanasangitam in its traditional form is seen at its best among the Marars and Poduvals, who were hereditary Ambalavasi Ardha Brahmanas (Semi Brahmins) engaged to do the same.Kerala has shared the general musical culture of peninsular India from the earliest times. South Indian music is generally known as Carnatic music because of its common features. Each region of the south has its own culture. Kerala's music is known as Sopanam. Sangeetam (Music) appears to have acquired its name from the 'Sopanam' which means 'Sanctum Sanctorum' of the temple. Its essential features were born out of a happy blending of the Vedic, the folk and tribal music of the region.Some famous singers are Neralattu Rama Poduval, Janardhanan Nedungadi and Damodara Marar.
Panchari Melam The percussion ensemble panchari melam (or panchari), as part of the chenda melam (or melam) family, is the best-known and most popular kshetram vadyam genre to be performed at virtually every temple festival in central Kerala. Malayalees, especially in the central districts, regard panchari as the most ancient percussion genre in Kerala. Other melams are pandi, chempata, anchatanta, dhruvam, atanta, and chempha. Though there are musical and ritualistic differences between the panchari and other melams, the description of the former is proto-typical for the latter. Panchari melam is either performed in an elaborated form (bigger ensemble, longer performance time) to accompany the annual temple festivals or in an abbreviated form for the daily or weekly rituals. Both forms are performed within the walls of the temple. The ensemble starts at the main entrance to the inner part of the temple, slowly circumambulating the shrine clockwise while playing. On either of the eight wind directions or the compass points they stop and perform. Usually a phase or at least a talavattam (tala cycle, see below) is concluded before proceeding; thus paying reference to each divinity located in different parts of the temple. The procession is led by the divine idol of the temple kept on an elephant or carried by a Nambutiri priest. The deity faces the musical ensemble and devotees, the latter surrounding the musicians in a semi-circle eagerly following the musical progress of the melam.
Panchavadyam As Panchavadyam is regarded as one of the most sophisticated art forms in Kerala, the performers are highly respected and usually a huge crowd gathers to watch and listen to the performance. In distinction to the smaller ritualistic panchavadyam, this orchestral form is also called sevanga panchavadyam. Similar to chenda melam, panchavadyam is also characterised by a pyramid rhythmic structure, the ever increasing tempo, and the proportionally decreasing number of beats in a cycles. In contrast to melam it uses different instruments, is not related so closely to the kshetram ritual, contains improvised parts, and its present form was only composed in the 1930s by the maddalam artist Venkichan Swami Bhagavatar and Madhava Warrier. An intelligent mixture of composed and improvised parts creates an amazing sound atmosphere. Similar to panchari the artists are grouped in two semicircles facing each other. According to the panchavadyam band leader and timila artist Kuttapan Marar (2001), this genre is not performed for any ritual, though it is performed in a small ensemble parallel to the diparadhana evening ritual.
The hallmark of Kerala music lies in the dominance of percussion instruments, its roots in the traditional kavu ritual music and the natural environment. Modern Kerala gives us hints of the sources from which these early musicians had created such a mighty and powerful music: the hammering sound of the woodpecker; the various sounds of falling rain on leafs or thatched roofs in the long rainy season; the croaking of the frogs after heavy rainfall; storm and wind moving the leafs of trees, bushes and grass. Or the man-made sounds: the regular noise of wood cutting and chopping; the washer women beating the dirty clothes onto the stones at the river or temple pond. The Malayalees only distinguish two forms of music kutuka (to drum) and pattu (to sing). It is interesting that the term pattu is also used for solo instrumental genres kuzhal (oboe) and kombu pattu (horn). Percussion domination means that the musical framework of the pieces is not determined by a melody or raga, but consists of a very sophisticated rhythmical structure and content. The ‘melody’ of a piece is formed through a prominent rhythmic sound. Depending on the ritual this rhythm melody is more or less elaborated, and more or fewer compositional or improvisational elements are employed. A melody or raga, where it is used, is usually subordinated to the rhythm (an exception of this rule is kuzhal pattu). The term percussion-dominated indicates that the main instruments are drums and cymbals and the rhythmic structure is the main feature of the music. The wind instruments have in this sense a subordinated role to play. Actually, the function and entry of kuzhal and kombu in the big orchestras is very much the same as a rhythm instrument. The wind instruments have to embellish and to prolong the beat of the drums, to give signs for taking up the kalasom (a kind of cadential phrase) and have to play some pattern on the given talam. Common to all percussion items is that each single music genre represents a unique musical piece. Therefore one of the bigger orchestral pieces, like the chenda melam (or melam), is always played with the same rhythmic structure. The beauty of every performance is the result of an intelligent and experienced combination of time and tempo. This combination is mainly responsible for whether the concert develops into a superior or merely an average performance. The main responsibility for this very difficult artistic task lies with the skill of the band leader, who is always a drum player and belongs to the Marar or Pooduval community. He is responsible for guiding the other musicians through the given time frame, to perform a chenda melam in one, two, three or even four hours. The position of the bandleader in melam is to be the most important solo musician, responsible for the pace and progress of the piece, rather than being a conductor guiding the orchestra from the front. The informal and relaxed atmosphere is enhanced by the band playing in front of the elephants, the audience pushing from all sides and punching the air with their fists. A point of confusion, especially in relationship to Karnatik music, are the terms and descriptions of the many talam (rhythm) cycles used in Kerala music. Though there are a certain distinctive number of talam cycles en vogue (i.e. with distinct numbers of beats and subdivisions) the terms vary by region, genre, and musician groups. We mention the talam cycles and subdivisions as we deal with each genre, using the name most commonly mentioned by the musicians of that genre.
Culture and Dance Forms
Malayalees have a rich artistic and cultural tradition. These traditions give rise to art forms and festivals that are vibrant and colorful. Dance forms are intricate, gentle, and artistic. Festivals often involve elaborate processions of elephants accompanied by the sounds of drums, cymbals, and firecrackers.
Kathakali
Kathakali originated from Ramanattom (“Rama”= the Hindu god, Sri Rama; “nattom”= enactment”) and Krishnanattom ("Krishna"= the Hindu god, Krishna; “nattom”= enactment). History has it that Raja (ruler) of Kottarakkara (a province in Kerala) sculpted Ramanattom when the Zamorin (then ruler of Kozhikode, another province in Kerala) refused to allow a performance of Krishnanattom in the former’s palace. Subsequently, Kottayam Thampuran (ruler of Kottayam, another province in Kerala) composed several plays on Mahabharata thereby making these distinct from stories based on Ramanattom. Thus, Kathakali was born. Kathakali shares a lot of similarities to both Ramanattom and Krishnanattom. But it also incorporated several outside elements, which is thought to have contributed to its popularity. In particular, the increasing use of Malayalam, which is the local language (albeit as a mix of Sanskrit and Malayalam, called Manipravaalam) made it more popular among the masses. During its evolution, Kathakali also imbibed elements from folk and martial arts which existed at the time in Kerala. Characters with vividly painted faces and elaborate costumes re-enact stories from the Hindu epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana. Kathakali is featured in the award-winning Indo-French-German produced film Vaanaprastham. Kathakali is traditionally performed in the Hindu temple, but nowadays may also be seen in theatre performances.
Traditionally there are 101 classical Kathakali stories. Most of them were initially composed to last a whole night. Nowadays there is increasing popularity for concise versions of every story (lasting 2-4 hours instead of a whole night), which has been made by selecting the most dramatic or popular portions of individual stories. In spite of being a classical art form, Kathakali can be appreciated by novices and connoisseurs. This is because of the frequent use of “Lokadharmi” (or the elaboration of folk elements)which allows novices to gain a foothold when they start watching Kathakali. In contrast “Natyadharmi” (which is based on the Natyasastra-the science of Natya and is the more classical component of the art form) delights the experience of novices and connoisseurs alike. It is good to have an idea of the story being enacted. This will help the spectators to appreciate the “personalization” of characters by individual actors. In fact one of the major attractions for traditional Kathakali connoisseurs is their ability to distinguish and debate on the "personalizations" that each actor brings about in his depiction of the story. Often this is a challenging task as most the characters and stories are derived from Hindu epics, which are memorized for people from that region. Success/ failure of amateur Kathakali artistes is often decided by their sensibility to successfully personalize characters.The most popular stories enacted are Nala Charitam (a story from the Mahabharata, Duryodhana Vadham (a story from the Mahabharata), Kalyanasowgandhikam (the story of Bhima going to get flowers for Panchali, from the Mahabharata), Keechaka Vadham (another story of Bhima and Panchali, from the Mahabharata), Kiratham (Arjuna and Lord Shiva's fight, from the Mahabharata), Karna Shapadham (another story from Mahabharata).
Recently, as part of an attempt at popularizing the art, stories from other cultures, such as the story of Mary Magdalene from the Bible, and Shakespeare's King Lear have also been adapted into Kathakali scripts.
The language of the songs used for Kathakali is a mix of Malayalam and Sanskrit. called Manipravaalam. Even though the songs are set for “ragas” based on South Indian Classical Music” (Karnatic Music), there is a distinct style of rendition, which is known as the “sopanam” style. The Sopanam style incorporates the moods of temple songs which used to be sung (continues even now at some temples) at the time when Kathakali was born.
It is an interesting fact that though Kathakali is very popular outside Kerala, it is one of the least accepted art forms among Keralites. This art form has a high learning curve and lasts for hours. One of the theories is that in olden times the art form was not open to common man but only for aristocratic 'Raja' families and for Namboodiri casts. It was not open to even all "Nair" families though they belonged to "Savarna" caste. "Ottamthullal" on the otherhand is known as "common man's Kathakali".
Theyyam
Malayalees of north Kerala employ this art form. The Theyyam or Theyyattam is a popular ritual dance of north Kerala, particularly presented in the Kolathunadu (of the present Kannur and Kasargode districts). As a living cult with centuries old traditions, ritual and custom, it embraces almost all castes and classes of Hindu religion in this region. The term Theyyam is a corrupt form of daivam or God. It is a rare combination of dance and music and reflects important features of a tribal culture.The dance or invocation is generally performed in front of the village shrines. It is also performed in the houses as ancestor worship with elaborate rite and rituals.
There is no stage or curtain and other arrangements for the performance. The devotees would be standing or some of them would be sitting on a sacred tree in front of the shrine. In brief it is an open theatre. A performance of a particular deity according to its significance and hierarchy in the shrine continues for 12 to 24 hours with intervals. The chief dancer who propitiates the central deity of the shrine has to reside in the rituals. This may be an impact of Jainism and Buddhism. Further after sun set this particular dancer would not eat anything as legacy of Jainism. His make-up is done by specialists and other dancers. First part of the performance is usually known as vellattam or thottam. It is performed without proper make-up or decorative costume. Only a small red headdress is worn on this occasion.
The dancer along with drummers recites the particular ritual song, which describes the myths and legends of the particular ritual song, which describes the myths, and legends of the particular deity of the shrine or the folk deity to be propitiated. This is accompanied by the playing of folk musical instruments. After finishing this primary ritualistic part of the invocation the dancer returns to the green room. Again after a short interval he appears with proper make-up and costumes. There are different patterns of face-painting. Some of these patterns are called vairadelam, kattaram, kozhipuspam, kotumpurikam, and prakkezhuthu. Mostly primary and secondary colours are applied with contrast for face painting. It had effected certain stylization also. Then the dancer comes in front of the shrine and gradually “metamorphosises” as the particular deity of the shrine. He, after observation of certain rituals places the head-dress on his head and dances. In the background folk musical instruments like chenda, tuti, kuzhal and veekni are played with rhythm. All dancers take a shield and kadthala (sword) in their hands as continuation of the cult of weapon. Then the dancer circumambulates the shrine, runs in the courtyard dances. The Theyyam dance has different steps known as kalaasams. Each kalaasam is repeated systematically from first to eight step of footwork. A performance is a combination of playing of musical instruments, vocal recitation, dance and strange makeup and costumes. The stage-practices of Theyyam and its ritualistic observations make it one of the fascinating theatrical arts of India.
Mohiniyattam
Mohiniaattam performer
Mohiniyattam (also spelled as mohiniaattam, mohiniattom or mohiniyattam) is a traditional dance form of Malayalees from Kerala. A very graceful dance meant to be performed as a solo recital by women. The term Mohiniattam comes from the words "Mohini" meaning a woman who enchants onlookers and "aattam" meaning graceful and sensuous body movements. The word "Mohiniattam" literally means "dance of the enchantress".There are two stories of the Lord Vishnu disguised as a Mohini. In one, he appears as Mohini to lure the asuras (demons) away from the amrita (nectar of immortality) obtained during the churning of the palazhi or Ocean of Milk. In the second story Vishnu appears as Mohini to save Lord Shiva from the demon Bhasmasura. The name Mohiniaattam may have been coined after Lord Vishnu, and the main theme of the dance is love and devotion to God, with usually Vishnu or Krishna being the hero. Devadasis used to perform this in temples. But it also has elements of Koothu and Kottiyattom in it. it is a drama in dance and verse.
The dance which has influences and elements from two South Indian dance forms, the Bharatanatyam and Kathakali, was formulated in the court of king Swati Tirunal by Vadivelu, one of the Thanjavur Quartet. The dance involves the swaying of broad hips and the gentle movements of erect torso from side to side. This is reminiscent of the swinging of the palm leaves and the gently flowing rivers which abound Kerala, the land of Mohiniattam. There are approximately 40 different basic movements, known as 'atavukal', in Mohiniyattam.
The costume includes white sari embroidered with bright golden brocade (known as kasavu at the edges. The dance follows the classical text of Hastha Lakshanadeepika, which has elaborate description of Mudras (gestural expressions by the hand palm and fingers).
The vocal music of Mohiniattam involves variations in rhythmic structure known as ''chollu''. The lyrics are in Manipravala, a mixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam. The mohiniattam dance is performed to this accompaniment by the subtle gestures and footwork of the danseuse. The performer uses the eyes in a very coy yet sensual manner, the purpose being to enchant the mind without enticing the senses.
Other Dance Forms
'Ottamthullal' is a type of performing art from Kerala, India. Also known as the "poor mans Kathakali", Ottamthullal was created by the Malayali poet Kunchan Nambiar, as an alternative to the Chakyar koothu, as a protest against the prevalent socio-political structure and prejudices of the region. In Ottamthullal, a single actor wears colorful costumes, while reciting thullal (dance songs), all the while acting and dancing.
'Chakyar Koothu' is a performing art form from Kerala. It is a kind of mono act and a traditional equivalent of a stand-up comic act. However, unlike the stand-up comic, the performer has a wider leeway in that he can heckle the audience. "Koothu" means dance - which is a misnomer, since there is minimal choreography involved in this art form; facial expressions are important, though. Traditionally, it was performed inside a Hindu temple and the performer begins with a prayer to the deity of the temple. He then goes on to narrate a verse in Sanskrit before explaining it in the vernacular Malayalam. The narration that follows touches upon various current events and societal factors with great wit and humor. Koothu was traditionally performed by the Chakyar community.
'Koodiyattam' is a traditional performing artform from Kerala. Recognised by UNESCO as a Human Heritage Art, this form of Sanskrit drama is considered to be at least 2000 years old. Kulasekhara Varma Cheraman Perumal, an ancient King of Kerala is known as the creator of Koodiyattam in the present form, and his Aattaprakaram is considered as the most authoritative publication on the art form.
'Velakali' is a ritual art (dance) of Kerala, mainly performed at temples in the festival time.The performers, clad in the traditional clothes and colourful headgear of the medieval Nair soldiers, engage in vigorous movements and dexterous sword play, to the accompaniment of an orchestra comprising the maddalam, ilathalam, kombu and kuzhal. Velakali originated in Ambalappuzha where Mathoor Panicker, chief of the Chempakasserri army, promoted it to boost the martial spirit of the people. The dance form is a regular feature of the annual festivities at the Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna temple in Alappuzha district. Extreme dedication and continuous practice are essential for this form of art.
'Kolkali' is a folk art performed in Kerala. The dance performers move in a circle, striking small sticks and keeping rhythm with special steps. The circle expands and contracts as the dance progress. The accompanying music gradually rises in pitch and the dance reaches its climax.
Many ancient family houses in Kerala have special snake shrines called Kavu. 'Sarpam Thullal' is usually performed in the courtyard of houses having snake shrines. This is a votive offering for family wealth and happiness. The dance is performed by members of a community called Pulluvar. In the first stage the pulluvan draws a kalam (the field) in with two or more twining snakes in the courtyard. An oil lit traditional lamp and one full measure (nirapara) each of paddy and rice are then placed in front of the kalam. In the second stage, the idol of the snake is brought out from the Kavu in a procession called thalapoli to the uproarious tumult of percussion instrument (panchavadyam).
Muslim and Christian Art Forms
'Duff Muttu' (also: Dubh Muttu) is an art form prevalent among Muslims in Kerala. Basically Duff or Dubh is a music instrument made of wood and ox skin. It is also called Thappitta. Participants play this and dance. In certain areas, instead of Duff or Dubh, Arabana is used. This was performed in Madina in Saudi Arabia.
'Oppana',is a popular form of social entertainment among the Muslim community of Kerala, prevalent all over, especially in the northern districts of Kasaragod,Kannur, Calicut and Malappuram.Oppana is generally presented by females, numbering about fifteen including musicians, on a wedding day. The bride dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments is the chief spectator who sits on a peetam, around which the singing and dancing take place. While they sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride using simple steps. Two or three girls begin the songs and the rest join in chorus. Sometime Oppana is also presented by males to entertain the bridegroom. It usually takes place just before the bridegroom leaves for the bride's residence where the Nikah (marriage) takes place or at the time he enters the Maniyara.Harmonium, Tabla, Ganjira and Elathaalam are the musical instruments employed for this performance. Only the Mappilapaattu will be sung on the occasion.
'Kuthu Ratheeb' is a religious ritual performed by some sections of the Muslim population in Kerala.Weapons are used in this ritual. Sometimes it spills over and actual injury is inflicted. Common acts in Kuthu Ratheeb include piercing the tongue, the ear and stomach with iron rods. Byths are hymns that are sung during Kuthu Ratheeb. There are more than twenty Byths and each are different.
'Mappila Paattukal' or Mappila Songs are folklore Muslim devotional songs in the Malayalam language. These are sung by Muslims (Mappilas) of Malabar. The first Gramaphone record in Malayalam Language was a Mappila song. In 1925, Gul Mohammed, father of celebrity artist KG Sathar recorded his voice in Gramaphone. Even though millions of Mappila songs were released thereafter on records, only few of them are considered as authentic Mappila Songs. Mappila songs are composed in colloquial Malayalam and are sung in a distinctive tune. They are composed in a mixture of Malayalam and Arabic and have a special charm of their own. They deal with diverse themes such as religion, love, satire, heroism, etc.
'Margamkali' is an entertainment form found among Suriyani Christian (Syrian Christian) folk in southern part of Kerala. Margamkali is a slant imitation of Sangamkali. The Christian soldiers used to pass time engaged in Margamkali and the subject usually is the arrival of Mar Thoma and his efforts to convert other people to Christianity in Kerala. Another art form is 'Parichamuttukali' [1] performed by christians of northern and central Kerala, which is basically a type of martial arts dance influenced by Kalaripayattu.
VallamKali
Vallamkali, also known as 'Snake Boat Race' literally means boat game (race) in Malayalam. It is the traditional boat race in Kerala. It is mainly conducted during the season of the harvest festival Onam in Autumn. Vallam Kali include races of many kinds of traditional boats of Kerala. The race of Chundan Vallam (snake boat) is the major item. Hence Vallam Kali is also known in English as Snake Boat Race and a major tourist attraction. Other types of boats which do participate in various events in the race are Churulan Vallam, Iruttukuthy Vallam, Odi Vallam, Veppu Vallam (Vaipu Vallam), Vadakkanody Vallam, Kochu Vallam. Nehru Trophy Boat Race is one the famous Vallam Kali held in Punnamada Lake in Alappuzha district of Kerala.Champakulam Moolam Boat Race is the oldest and most popular vallamkali (snake boat race) in Kerala. The race is held on river Pampa on the moolam day (according to the Malayalam Era M.E) of the Malayalam month Midhunam, the day of the installation of the deity at the Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna Temple.The Aranmula Boat Race takes place at Aranmula, near a temple dedicated to Lord Krishna and Arjuna. Thousands of people gather on the banks of the river Pampa to watch the snake boat races. Nearly 30 snake boats or "chundan vallams" participate in the festival.Payippad Jalotsavam is a three day water festival. Its conducted in Payippad Lake which is 35 km from Alappuzha district of Kerala state in. There is a close relation between this Payippad boat race and Subramanya Swamy Temple in Haripad.Indira Gandhi Boat Race is a boat race festival celebrated in the last week of December in the backwaters of Kochi, a city in Kerala. This boat race is one of the most popular vallamKali (snake boat race) in Kerala. This festival is conducted to promote Kerala tourism.
Festivals
Malayalees celebrate a variety of festivals.The three major ones are given below. Other than the three given below Malayalees also celebrate Christmas and Bakrid.
Onam
Thiruvathira kali on occasion of Onam
Onam is an annual harvest festival, celebrated mainly in Kerala, although celebrations also occur among the diaspora. It is the foremost festival among the cultural repertoire of Malayalees, and falls during the month of Chingam (August-September as per the Gregorian calendar), the first month of the Malayalam calendar and lasts for ten days. Though it is essentially a harvest festival of Malayalees, mythologically it is linked to Malayalee-Hindu folktales. Like many other religious festivals in India, Onam is celebrated by people across all castes and faiths. Onam has been part of Malayalee psyche for centuries. There are records of Onam being celebrated during the Sangam Age. The earliest record of Onam is found during time of Kulasekhara Perumals around AD 800, soon after the Kalabhra Interregnum of Kerala History. Until the eighth century the political history is mostly unknown and is usually known as the Kalabhra Interregnum. Kalabhras were supposed to have been ruling Kerala until at least the sixth century. Kalabhras probably refers to Keralaputras. Who were they?. It was most probably the people of Mahabali.
Onam has two specific significance.
First it is the communal memory and celebration of past history as ennunciated in the Mahabali Legend. A story of how paradise was lost.
Second it is the celebration of the harvest tied with the memory of the golden age of prosperity.
It is believed that during those days the whole of Chingam was celebrated as Onam season. After the rain drenched month of Karkidakam with its privations, Chingam is a welcome month for people in the state of Kerala. The festival is the harbinger of spring — signalling the start of the harvest season. Onam epitomizes the newfound vigour and enthusiasm of the season, and is celebrated with traditional fervour with visit to temples, family get-togethers, gifting each other clothes called Onakkodi and lots of merry making.
Vishu
Vishukkani
Vishu is a festival celebrated by malayalees around the first day in the Malayalam month of Medam (April – May). This occasion signifies the Sun's transit to the zodiac Mesha Mesha Raasi as per Indian astrological calculations. Vishu is also considered as the Malayalam New Year day and thus the importance of this day to all Malayalees regardless of their religion or sect. Similarly the day is celebrated in almost all places in India by the Hindus albeit by different names. In Assam this day is called Bihu, in Punjab Baisakhi and in Tamil Nadu Puthandu. The word "Vishu" in Sanskrit means "equal". Therefore Vishu is more probably denoting one of the equinox days.
The festival is marked with offerings to the divine called 'Vishukkani'. The offerings consist of a ritual arrangement in the puja room of auspicious articles like raw rice, fresh linen, golden cucumber, betel leaves, arecanut, metal mirror, the yellow flowers konna (Cassia fistula), and a holy text and coins, in a bell metal vessel called uruli. A lighted bell metal lamp called nilavilakku is also placed alongside. This arrangement is completed the previous night. On the day of Vishu, the custom is to wake up at dawn and go to the puja room with the eyes closed so that the Vishukkani is the first thing one sees. Since the occasion marks the beginning of Malayalam New Year, it is also considered auspicious to read verses from Hindu Holy book Ramayanam after seeing the "Vishukkani". It is also believed by some that the page of the Ramayanam to which you open up will have a bearing on your life in the coming year. Devotees also throng the well-known temples like Sabarimala Ayyappan Teample, Guruvayur Sree Krishna temple to have a "Vishukkani Kazhcha" on the early hours of "Vishu" day.
Pooram
pooram is an annual temple festival held after the summer harvest,celebrated by malayalees,mainly in north Kerala. The name has its origin in 'Poora Kali' which comes from the Malayalam language used by the people of Kerala,India). Most pooram festivals have at least one ornately decorated elephant parading in the procession. However, there are some, such as Aryankavu Pooram, near Shoranur that do not use the decorated elephant. The most famous Pooram is Thrissur Pooram as it has become a tourist destination for Europeans and North Americans. Other well known pooram festivals are Arattupuzha - Peruvanam Pooram, Nenmara vallangi vela, Wadakkancherry pooram and Edakkunni Uthram Vilakku (often called Vela).
Thrissur Pooram is the most colourful temple festival of Kerala.Thrissur Pooram attracts large masses of devotees and spectators from all parts of the State and even outside.Celebrated in Medom (April-May) it consists of processions of richly caparisoned elephants from various neighbouring temples to the Vadakumnathan temple, Thrissur. The most impressive processions are those from the Krishna Temple at Thiruvambadi and the Devi Temple at Paramekkavu which is quite a significant event for its devotees.
Cuisine
Main Article:Cuisine of Kerala.
The cuisine of Malayalees are linked in all its richness to the history, geography and culture of the land. Most of the non-vegetarian dishes are spicy. The food habits in Travancore and Malabar (southern and northern Kerala) are quite different to each other.Kerala is known for its traditional sadhyas, a vegetarian meal served with boiled rice and a host of side-dishes. The sadhya is complemented by payasam, a sweet milk dessert native to Kerala. The sadhya is, as per custom, served on a banana leaf. The southern Kerala dishes are often spiced with garlic, whereas in North Kerala garlic is generrally avoided in all vegetarian dishes. Traditional dishes include sambar, aviyal, kaalan, theeyal, thoran, injipully, pulisherry, appam, kappa (tapioca), puttu (steam cake), and puzhukku. Coconut is an essential ingredient in most of the food items and is liberally used. Malayalees are also acknowledged meat eaters, which include Beef, Pork and Mutton (Goat).
Puttu is a culinary specialty in Kerala. It is a steamed rice cake which is a favourite breakfast of most Malayalees. It is served with either brown chickpeas cooked in a spicy gravy, papadams and boiled small green lentils, or tiny ripe yellow Kerala plantains. In the highlands there is also a variety of puttu served with paani (the boiled-down syrup from sweet palm toddy) and sweet boiled bananas. For steaming the puttu, there is a special utensil called ''Puttu Kutti''. It consists of two sections. The lower bulkier portion is where the water for steaming is stored. The upper detachable leaner portion which is separated from lower portion with peforated lids so as to allow the steam to pass through and bake the rice powder which has been filled. The upper portion of the leaner section is covered with a peforated cup shaped lid once it is filled with rice powder.
Martial Arts
Malayalees have their own lethal form of martial arts called Kalaripayattu. This type of martial arts was used as defensive mechanism (mainly by men from Nair families) against intruders . In ancient times, disputes between ''(naaduvazhis or Vazhunors)nobles'' were also settled by the outcome of a Kalaripayattu tournament. This ancient martial art is claimed as ''the mother of all martial arts'' – even the Chinese Shaolin chuan from the famous Shaolin temple traces its ancestry to Bodhi Dharma, an Indian Buddhist monk who was a Kalaripayattu expert.[25] The word "kalari" can be traced to ancient Sangam literature.[26] The martial tradition of Kalarippayattu is also dated to ancient Dravidian traditions.[27] Phillip Zarrilli, a professor at the University of Exeter and one of the few Western authorities on kalaripayattu, estimates that kalarippayattu dates back to at least the 12th century CE. The historian Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai attributes the birth of Kalarippayattu to an extended period of warfare between the Cheras and the Cholas in the 11th century CE. What eventually crystalised into this style is thought to have been a product of existing South Indian styles of combat, combined with techniquies brought by migration from the north along the western coast. What eventually crystallized as kalarippayattu combined indigenous Dravidian techniques with the martial practices and ethos brought by brahman migrations from Saurastra and Konkan down the west Indian coast into Karnataka and eventually Kerala. Discovery channel notes that Kalarippayattu may be one of the oldest martial arts in existence.[25] The oldest western reference to Kalarippayattu is a 16th century travelogue of Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese explorer. The Southern style, which places more emphasis on open hand combat has mainly been practiced by the Tamil speaking regions, at least for the last few centuries.[29]
There are many different styles of Kalarippayattu. If one looks at the way attacks and defences are performed, one can distinguish three main schools of thought: the northern styles, the central styles, and the southern styles. The best introduction to the differences between these styles is the book of Luijendijk. Luijendijk uses photographs to show several Kalarippayattu exercises and their applications. Each chapter in his book references a representative of each of the three main traditions.
Northern kalarippayattu (practiced mainly in the northern Malabar region of Kozhikode and Kannur) places comparatively more emphasis on weapons than on empty hands. Masters in this system are usually known as ''gurukkal'' (and only occasionally as ''asan''), and were often given honorific titles, especially Panikkar. By oral and written traditions, Parasurama, the sixth Avatar of Vishnu, is believed to be the founder of the art.
Northern kalarippayattu is distinguished by its ''meippayattu'' - physical training and use of full-body oil massage. The system of treatment and massage, and the assumptions about practice are closely associated with Ayurveda. The purpose of medicinal oil massage is to increase the practitioners' flexibility, to treat muscle injuries incurred during practice, or when a patient has problems related to the bone tissue, the muscles, or nerve system. The term for such massages is ''thirumal'' and the massage specifically for physical flexibility ''chavutti thirumal''.
There are several lineages (''sampradayam''), of which the ''arappukai'' is the most common nowadays. There are schools which teach more than one of these traditions. Some traditional kalaris around Cannanore, for example, teach a blend of ''arappukai'', ''pillatanni'', and ''katadanath'' styles.[30]
In southern styles of kalarippayattu (practised mainly in old Travancore inluding the present Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu), practice and fighting techniques emphasize empty hands and application from the first lesson. In the southern styles the stages of training are Chuvatu (solo forms), Jodi (partner training/sparring), Kurunthadi (short stick), Neduvadi (long stick), Katthi (knife), Katara (dagger), valum parichayum (sword and shield), Chuttuval (flexible long sword), double sword and Marmma and kalari grappling. The southern styles of kalarippayattu have been practised primarily by a section Nairs and Ezhavas of kerala and a small section of Nadars, Kallars, Thevars, of estwhile Travancore areas.
Zarrilli refers to southern kalarippayattu as ''ati murai'' (the 'law of hitting') or ''marma ati'' (hitting the vital spots). The preliminary empty-hand techniques of ati murai are known as ''Adithada'' (hit/defend). Marma ati refers specifically to the application of these techniques to vital spots. Weapons may include long staffs, short sticks, and the double deer horns. Southern styles of kalarippayattu are not usually practiced in special roofed pits but rather in the open air, or in an unroofed enclosure of palm branches. Masters are known as asaan rather than gurukkal. The founder and patron saint is believed to be the rishi Agasthya.
Medical treatment in southern styles of kalarippayattu—which ''does'' include massage—is identified with Dravidian Siddha medicine which is as sophisticated as—though distinct from—Ayurveda. The Dravidian Siddha medical system is also known as ''Siddha Vaidyam'' and, like ati murai, is attributed to the rishi Agasthya. Active suppression of Nairs in southern Kerala led to the virtual extinction of their southern ''dronamballi sampradayam'' by the mid 1950s.
The central style (practiced mainly in Thrissur, Malappuram, Palakkad and certain parts of Ernakulam districts is 'a composite' from both the northern and southern styles that includes northern ''meippayattu'' preliminary exercises, southern emphasis on empty-hand techniques, and its own distinctive techniques, which are performed within floor drawings known as kalam.
'Marmashastram' stresses on ability of ''Marmam''.Marmam are pressure points of the human body. It is claimed that experienced practitioners can disable or kill their opponents by a mere touch in a Marmam. Practitioners of Kalarippayattu, learn about ''Marmashastram'', which are also used for ''marma treatment (marmachikitsa)''. It is said to be as sophisticated as the ''uzhichil'' treatment of Ayurveda. This system of marma treatment is part of ''Sidha Vaidhyam'', whose origin is attributed to ''Sage Agasthya'' and his disciples.
The earliest mention of the concept marmam also dates back to the ''Rig Veda'' where Indra is said to have defeated Vritra by attacking his ''marman'' with his vajra.[31] References to ''marman'' also found in the ''Atharva Veda''.[32] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practised attacking or defending vital points.Zarrilli, Phillip B. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.[33] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.
Kalaripayattu is taught for both men and women.
Some Famous Malayalees
Only few famous malayalees in specific fields are listed here.For a more complete collection of famous malayalees in all fields, please look at List of famous Keralites here.
Literature
Malayalam is a literature abundant language.This is due to the malayalees interest in literature. Malayalam has produced some of the best writers and poets, who are known internationally. Thunchat Ezhuthachan (16th century) is one of the giants among Malayalam poets, was also known as the father of malayalam language. Some of the other famous poets include Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon and ulloor S parameswara Iyer etc. They are regarded as the triumvirates (Kavithrayangal) of modern Malayalam literature. Some famous malayalee writers are Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, O. V. Vijayan, M.T.Vasudevan Nair,T. Padmanabhan, Changampuzha Krishna Pillai etc.
Cinema
Malayalam cinema boasts of many talented artists. Starting from Sathyan' and Prem Nazir, through Jayan and finally to the megastars Mohanlal and Mammootty, Malayalam cinema has travelled a long way. While Sathyan portrayed strict characters, Prem Nazeer played more soft and romantic characters. The characters presented by Jayan were full of masculine acts and thrilled the audience of that era and this era as well. Today Mammootty and Mohanlal represents the face of malayalam cinema to the world.
Social
A large number of Social Reforms have been undertaken in the state of Kerala.Of these reformers Sree Narayana Guru stands apart. Narayana Guru(1856 - 1928), also known as Sree Nārāyana Guru Swami, was a saint, sage and social reformer of India. Gurudeva, as he is fondly called, revolted against casteism and worked on propagating new values of freedom in spirituality and of social equality, thereby transforming the society in Kerala.
Politics
Kerala is the land where the first officially elected Communist government came into existence.E. M. S. Namboodiripad was the first elected communist Kerala chief minister.Kerala has produced many social politicians such as E.K. Nayanar etc.K.Karunakaran is one of the important political figures in Kerala.V.S. Achuthanandan is the present chief minister of Kerala.
Athletics
P.T. Usha was born in Payyoli, Kerala. Usha's success story begins from the 1982 Asiad in which she won two silver medals in 100 meters and 200 meters respectively. She won 17 medals — 13 gold, 3 silver and a bronze in four Asian Track and Field Championship during the period from 1983-89.Usha has won 101 international medals so far. She is employed as an officer in the Southern Railways. In 1985, she was conferred the Padma Shri and the Arjuna award. She is also the recipient of Arjuna Award ,1984.Another rising Indian Malayalee athlete is Anju Bobby George.Anju Bobby George made history when she won the bronze medal in Long Jump at the 2003 World Championships in Athletics in Paris. With this achievement, she became the first Indian athlete ever to win a medal in a World Championships in Athletics clearing 6.70 m. She went on to win the silver medal at the IAAF World Athletics Final in 2005, a performance she considers her best.
Major Issues
Malayalees have devised their own small associations in those regions, popularly known as 'Malayala Samajam' or 'Kerala Samajam'. Issues of foreign Malayalees are catered by this type of associations.
Unemployment
Another major problem faced by Malayalees is unemployment. Kerala is not a fully industrialized state. Compared to States like Gujarat, Maharashtra or Tamil Nadu, Kerala is low industrialized. The resources of Kerala is not fully utilized. Thus, Malayalees find it hard to get a job in their own state.This leads them to try their luck in foreign countries, where they have to face much more hardships. Although, there are ''employment exchanges'', they cannot assure job for every Malayalees instantly. Back in 80’s and 90’s the issue of unemployment was so grave that the Malayalam literature and cinemas of that era almost all time pictured the problem of unemployment.
Today, Kerala is on path of industrialization. Job opportunities are getting increased by every month. By advent of 'Smart City' at Kochi job opportunities for many educated youngsters are guaranteed.
References
1. .
2. .
3. Ethnologue report for Malayalam
4. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
5. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
6. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
7. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
8. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
9. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
10. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
11. Krishna Chaitanya.Kerala.India, the land and the people.New Delhi:National Book Trust, India, 1994.http://worldcat.org/isbn/8123707517
12. Neither Newton nor Leibniz, ''canisius.edu''
13. From Vedic Martial Arts to Aikido, ''veda.harekrsna.cz''
14. A travel feature on the ancient Kerala art of Kalaripayattu, ''rediff.com''
15. Kalaripayattu, the traditional martial art, ''enskalari.org.in''
16. Kerala - Gateway to Paradise, ''kerala.cc''
17. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; Weil 1982; Menachery 1998.
18. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
19. Architecture of Kerala
20. .
21. .
22. .
23. .
24. .
25. Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
26. Suresh, P. R. (2005). ''Kalari Payatte - The martial art of Kerala''.
27. Subaltern Sports: Politics and Sports in South Asia By James H. Mills. Published 2005, Anthem Press. Subject: Archaeology /Anthropology. ISBN 1843311674
28. Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
29. Phillip B. Zarrilli, When the Body Becomes All Eyes
30. Luijendijk 2005
31. Mariana Fedorova (1990). ''Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin''.
32. Subhash Ranade (1993). ''Natural Healing Through Ayurveda'' (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.
33. G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''.
See also
 | News |  | Quotes |  | Images |  | Texts |
External links
★ Official site of Kerala Government
★ Malayalam Resource Centre
★ Malayalee Web Page Collection
★ Melam - Eclectic Links Around Malayalam
★ Joshua Project: Malayali People Cluster
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