MANZANAR
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(Redirected from Manzanar War Relocation Center)
'Manzanar', located in California's Owens Valley, between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, is most widely known as the site of one of ten "camps" (''see'' Terminology section, below) where over 110,000 Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II. It is located approximately northeast of Los Angeles.
Manzanar (which means “apple orchard†in Spanish), located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, was identified as the best-preserved of the former camp sites by the United States National Park Service, and is now the Manzanar National Historic Site.[3]
Long before the first prisoners arrived in March 1942, Manzanar's history included settlement by Native Americans, who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area, and then ranchers and miners who established the town of Manzanar in 1910,[4] but had abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area. Yet as different as these groups might seem, they are tied together by the common thread of forced relocation. Since the last prisoners left Manzanar in 1945, former prisoners and others have worked to protect the site and to establish it as a National Historic Site that preserves and interprets the site for current and future generations. Although the primary focus is the Japanese American Internment era, Manzanar National Historic Site: General Management Plan and Environmental Statement, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, , , National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, August 1996, as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site, the site also interprets the town of Manzanar, the ranch days, the settlement by the Owens Valley Paiute (the indigenous people in the area), and the role that water played in shaping the history of the Owens Valley.[5]
Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Manzanar and the other camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents were imprisoned by the United States Government during the war.[6][7] Concentration Camp Or Summer Camp? Robert Ito Manzanar has been referred to as a "War Relocation Center," "relocation camp," "relocation center," "internment camp," and "concentration camp." The controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues to the present day.[8][9][10]
Manzanar was first inhabited by Native Americans nearly 10,000 years ago, and approximately 1,500 years ago the area was settled by the Owens Valley Paiute, who ranged across the Owens Valley from Long Valley on the north to Owens Lake on the south, and from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the west to the Inyo Mountains on the east.[11] Other Native American nations in the region included the Miwok, Western Mono, and Tubatulabal to the west, the Shoshone to the south and east, and the Mono Lake Paiute to the north. The Owens Valley Paiute hunted, fished, collected pine nuts, raised crops utilizing irrigation in the Manzanar area,[12] and traded brown ware pottery for salt from the Saline Valley. They also traded other wares and goods across the Sierra Nevada during the summer and fall.[13]
In the early 1860s, after gold and silver were discovered in the Sierra Nevada and the Inyo Mountains, the Owens Valley Paiute, along with other native peoples in the region, were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon; they were forced by the United States Army at gunpoint to walk almost 200 miles (322 km) in one of many “Trails of Tears†inflicted upon Native Americans in United States history.[14][15] This action was preceded by years of conflict between the indigenous peoples of the region and white settlers, as Native Americans in the Owens Valley saw their way of life being threatened by the settlers, who grazed their cattle and mined in the area.[16]
Approximately one-third of the Native Americans in the Owens Valley were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon, but after 1863, many returned to their permanent villages that had been established along creeks flowing down from the Sierra Nevada mountains. In the Manzanar area, the Owens Valley Paiute had established villages along Bairs, Georges, Shepherds, and Symmes creeks. Evidence of Paiute settlement in the area is still present.
When white settlers first arrived in the Owens Valley in the mid-19th century they found a number of large Paiute villages in the Manzanar area.[17] John Shepherd, one of the first settlers, homesteaded of land three miles (4.8 km) north of Georges Creek in 1864. With the help of Owens Valley Paiute field workers and laborers,[18] his ranch eventually expanded to .[19]
In 1905, George Chaffey, an agricultural developer from Southern California, purchased Shepherd's ranch and subdivided it, along with other adjacent ranches, and founded the town of Manzanar in 1910.[20] Chaffey's Owens Valley Improvement Company built an irrigation system and planted thousands of fruit trees, and by 1920 the town had more than twenty-five homes, a two-room school, a town hall, and a general store. Also at that time, nearly of apple, pear, and peach trees were being grown, along with grapes, prunes, potatoes, corn, alfalfa and large vegetable and flower gardens.[21]
"Manzanar was a very happy place and a pleasant place to live during those years, with its peach, pear, and apple orchards, alfalfa fields, tree-lined country lanes, meadows and corn fields," said Martha Mills, who lived at Manzanar from 1916 to 1920.[22]
Some of the early orchards, along with some remnants of the town and ranches, are still present at Manzanar today.
As early as March 1905, the City of Los Angeles began secretly acquiring water rights in the Owens Valley,[23][24] and it completed construction of its 233-mile (375 km) Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, conducting diverted Owens River water to Los Angeles instead of allowing it to drain into Owens Lake.[25][26] But it did not take long for Los Angeles water officials to realize that Owens River water was not enough to quench the thirst of a rapidly growing metropolis, and in 1920 they began to purchase more of the water rights on the Owens Valley floor. As the decade went on, the City of Los Angeles bought out one Owens Valley farmer after another, and even extended its reach northward into Mono County, including Long Valley.[27] By 1933, the City owned 85% of all town property and 95% of all ranch and farm land in the Owens Valley, including Manzanar.
Although there were those who sold their land (for prices that made them financially independent), a significant number chose to stay. But in dry years, Los Angeles pumped ground water and drained all surface water, diverting all of it into its aqueduct and leaving Owens Valley ranchers without water.[27]
Even though they chose not to sell, without water for irrigation the holdout ranchers were forced out of their ranches and communities; that included the town of Manzanar, which was abandoned by 1929. Manzanar remained uninhabited until the Army leased from the City of Los Angeles for the Manzanar War Relocation Center.
After the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States Government swiftly moved to begin solving the “Japanese Problem†on the West Coast of the United States,[29] and in the evening hours of that same day the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested selected “enemy†aliens, including 2,192 who were of Japanese descent.[30] On February 19 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which authorized the Secretary of War to designate military commanders to prescribe military areas and to exclude “any or all persons†from such areas. The order also authorized the construction of “relocation centers†to house those who were to be excluded.[31] This order resulted in the forced relocation of over 120,000 Japanese Americans—two-thirds of whom were native-born American citizens; the rest were prevented by federal law from becoming citizens. Over 110,000 of them were imprisoned in the ten camps.
Manzanar was the first camp to be established.[32] Initially, it was a temporary “reception centerâ€, known as the ''Owens Valley Reception Center'' from March 21, 1942, to May 31, 1942. At that time, it was operated by the Army's Wartime Civilian Control Administration (WCCA).[33]
The Owens Valley Reception Center was transferred to the War Relocation Authority (WRA) on June 1, 1942, and officially became the "Manzanar War Relocation Center." The first Japanese American prisoners to arrive at Manzanar were "volunteers" who helped build the camp, but by mid-April up to 1,000 Japanese Americans were arriving daily, and by July the population of the camp neared 10,000.[34] Over 90% of the prisoners were from the Los Angeles area, with the rest coming from Stockton, California, and Bainbridge Island, Washington. Manzanar held 10,046 prisoners at its peak, and a total of 11,070 people were imprisoned there.
The weather at Manzanar had a tremendous impact on the prisoners, few of whom were accustomed to the extremes of the area's climate. The Owens Valley lies at an elevation of about 4,000 feet (1,200 m).[35] Summers on the desert floor of the Owens Valley are generally hot, with temperatures exceeding the 100 °F (39 °C) mark not uncommon. Winters can be very cold, with occasional snowfall and daytime temperatures that often drop into the 40 °F (4.4 °C) range. At night, temperatures are generally 30–40 °F (17–22 °C) lower than the daytime highs, and high winds are common day or night. The area's mean annual precipitation is barely five inches (12.7 cm). The ever-present dust was a continual problem due to the frequent high winds, so much so that prisoners usually woke up in the morning covered from head to toe with a fine layer of dust, and barracks constantly had to be swept.[36]
"In the summer, the heat was unbearable," said former Manzanar prisoner Ralph Lazo (''see'' Notable Manzanar prisoners section, below). "In the winter, the sparsely rationed oil didn't adequately heat the tar paper covered pine barracks with the knotholes in the floor. The wind would blow so hard, it would toss rocks around."[37]
The camp site was situated on at Manzanar, leased from the City of Los Angeles, with the developed portion covering approximately .[38] The residential area was about one square mile (2.6 km²), and consisted of 36 blocks of hastily constructed,[39] 20-foot (6.1 m) by 100-foot (30.5 m) tarpaper barracks, with each prisoner family living in a single 20-foot (6.1 m) by 25-foot (7.6 m) “apartment†in the barracks. These apartments consisted of partitions with no ceilings, eliminating any chance of privacy.[40][41] To be sure, privacy was a major problem for the prisoners, especially since the camp had communal men's and women's latrines.
“…One of the hardest things to endure was the communal latrines, with no partitions; and showers with no stalls,†said former Manzanar prisoner Rosie Kakuuchi.
Each residential block also had a communal mess hall, a laundry room, a recreation hall, an ironing room, and a heating oil storage tank, although Block 33 lacked a recreation hall. In addition to the residential blocks, Manzanar had 34 additional blocks that had staff housing, camp administration offices, two warehouses, a garage, a camp hospital, and 24 firebreaks. The camp also had sentry posts at the main entrance, school facilities, a high school auditorium, staff housing, chicken and hog farms, churches, a cemetery, a post office, a cooperative store, other shops, a camp newspaper, and other necessary amenities that one would expect to find in most American cities. Manzanar also had a camouflage net factory, an experimental plantation for producing natural rubber from the Guayule plant, and an orphanage called Children's Village, which housed 101 Japanese American orphans.[42] The camp perimeter had eight watchtowers manned by armed Military Police, and it was enclosed by five-strand barbed wire.
After being uprooted from their homes and communities, the prisoners found themselves having to endure primitive, sub-standard conditions, lack of privacy, and having to wait in one line after another for meals, at latrines, and at the laundry room.[43] Each camp was intended to be self-sufficient, and Manzanar was no exception. Cooperatives operated various services, such as the camp newspaper,[44][45][46] beauty and barber shops, shoe repair, and more. In addition, prisoners raised chickens, hogs, and vegetables, and cultivated the existing orchards for fruit. Prisoners even made their own soy sauce and tofu.
Food at Manzanar was based on military requirements. Meals usually consisted of hot rice and vegetables, since meat was scarce due to rationing. In early 1944, a chicken ranch began operation, and in late April of the same year, a hog farm was opened. Both operations provided a welcome supplement to the prisoners' diet.[47]
Most prisoners were employed at Manzanar to keep the camp running. Unskilled workers earned US$8 per month, semi-skilled workers earned $12 per month, skilled workers made $16 per month, and professionals earned $19 per month. In addition, all prisoners received $3.60 per month as a clothing allowance.
The prisoners also made Manzanar more liveable through recreation, and participated in sports, including baseball and football, and martial arts.[36] They also personalized and beautified their barren surroundings by building elaborate gardens, which often included pools, waterfalls, and rock ornaments. There was even a nine-hole golf course.[49] Remnants of some of the gardens, pools, and rock ornaments are still present at Manzanar.
Although most prisoners quietly accepted their fate during World War II, there was some resistance in the camps. Poston, Heart Mountain, Topaz, and Tule Lake each had civil disturbances about wage differences, black marketing of sugar, intergenerational friction, rumors of “informers†reporting to the camp administration or the FBI, and other issues. However, the most serious incident occurred at Manzanar on December 5–6, 1942, and became known as the Manzanar Riot.[50]
After several months of tension between prisoners who supported the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) and a group of Kibei (Japanese Americans educated in Japan), rumors spread that sugar and meat shortages were the result of black marketing by camp administrators. To make matters worse, prisoner and JACL leader Fred Tayama was beaten by six masked men. Harry Ueno, the leader of the Kitchen Workers Union, was suspected of involvement and was arrested and removed from Manzanar. Soon after, 3,000 to 4,000 prisoners gathered and marched to the administration area, protesting Ueno's arrest. After Ueno's supporters negotiated with the camp administration, he was returned to the Manzanar jail, but a crowd of several hundred returned to protest. When the crowd surged forward, military police threw tear gas to disperse them. As people ran to avoid the tear gas, some in the crowd pushed a driverless truck toward the jail. At that moment, the military police fired into the crowd, killing a 17-year-old boy instantly. A 21-year-old man who was shot in the abdomen died days later. Nine other prisoners were wounded, and a military police corporal was wounded by a ricocheting bullet.[51]
On November 21, 1945, the WRA closed Manzanar, the sixth camp to be closed. Although the prisoners had been brought to the Owens Valley by the United States Government, they had to leave the camp on their own,[52] with the WRA giving $25, one-way train or bus fare, and meals to those who had less than $600. While many left the camp voluntarily, a significant number refused to leave because they had no place to go after having lost everything when they were forcibly uprooted and removed from their homes. As such, they had to be forcibly removed once again, this time from Manzanar. Indeed, those who refused to leave were generally kicked out of their barracks, sometimes by force, even if they had no place to go.
One hundred forty-six prisoners died at Manzanar.[53] Fifteen prisoners were buried there, but only five graves remain, as most were later reburied elsewhere by their families.[54]
The Manzanar cemetery site is marked by a monument that was built by prisoner stone mason Ryozo Kado in 1943.[55] An inscription in Japanese on the front of the monument reads, æ…°éˆå¡” (Soul Consoling Tower). The inscription on the back reads "Erected by the Manzanar Japanese" on the left, and "August 1943" on the right. Today, the monument is often draped in strings of origami, and sometimes offerings of personal items are left by survivors and other visitors. The National Park Service periodically collects and catalogues these items.
After the camp was closed, the site eventually returned to its original state, and within a couple of years all the structures had been removed, with the exception of the two sentry posts at the entrance, the cemetery monument, and the former Manzanar High School auditorium, which was purchased by the County of Inyo. The County leased the auditorium to the Independence Veterans of Foreign Wars, who used it as a meeting facility and community theater until 1951. After that, the building was used as a maintenance facility by the Inyo County Road Department.[56]
As of 2007, the site also retains numerous building foundations, portions of the water and sewer systems, the outline of the road grid, remains of the landscaping constructed by prisoners, and much more. And despite four years of use by the prisoners, the site also retains evidence of the ranches and of the town of Manzanar, as well as artifacts from the days of the Owens Valley Paiute settlement.[57][58]
Sue Kunitomi Embrey, born on January 6, 1923, was an editor of the ''Manzanar Free Press'', the camp newspaper, and wove camouflage nets to support the war effort. She left Manzanar in late 1943 for Madison, Wisconsin and one year later moved to Chicago, Illinois. She returned to California in 1948 and went on to become a schoolteacher and a labor and community activist.[59] In 1969, Embrey was one of approximately 150 people who attended the first organized Manzanar Pilgrimage (''see'' Manzanar Pilgrimage section, below) and was one of the founders of the annual event. She also went on to become the primary force behind the preservation of the site and its gaining National Historic Site status.[60]
Aiko Yoshinaga-Herzig, born in 1925 in Los Angeles, was 17 years old when she was imprisoned at Manzanar. Later, she was incarcerated at Jerome and Rohwer, Arkansas.[61] Yoshinaga-Herzig later moved to New York where she became a community activist in the 1960s and was a member of Asian Americans for Action (AAA), the first Asian American political organization on the East Coast, which included Asian American activists Bill and Yuri Kochiyama. Although she was not trained to be an archival researcher, Yoshinaga-Herzig decided to find out what historical documents about herself and her family might exist at the National Archives.
Yoshinaga-Herzig and her husband, John "Jack" Herzig, pored over mountains of documents from the War Relocation Authority, a task that "was roughly equivalent to indexing all the information in a library, working from a card catalog that only gave a subject description by shelf, without giving individual book titles or authors." Their efforts resulted in the discovery of evidence that the US Government perjured itself before the United States Supreme Court in the 1944 cases ''Korematsu v. United States'', ''Hirabayashi v. United States,'' and ''Yasui v. United States'' by presenting falsified evidence to the Court, by destroying evidence, and by withholding other vital information,[62] thus providing the legal basis Japanese Americans needed to seek redress and reparations for their wartime imprisonment. The Herzigs' research was also valuable in their work with the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress (NCJAR), which filed a class action lawsuit against the US Government on behalf of the prisoners, though the US Supreme Court ruled against the plaintiff.
William Minoru Hohri, born in San Francisco, California, in 1927,[63] was imprisoned at Manzanar when he was 15 years old. His family entered Manzanar on April 3, 1942, and remained behind the barbed wire until August 25, 1945.[64] Hohri became a civil rights and anti-war activist after World War II, and in the late 1970s he became the chair of NCJAR, which brought a class action lawsuit against the US Government on March 16, 1983, asserting that it had unjustly imprisoned Japanese Americans during World War II.[65] The lawsuit stated 22 causes of action, including 15 alleged violations of constitutional rights, and sought $27 billion in damages.[66] Despite the fact the US Supreme Court eventually ruled against the class action plaintiffs, the lawsuit helped bring the case for redress and reparations to the public eye and showed the Congress and the Executive Branch that the US Government would have far greater exposure in the still-pending lawsuit than in legislation in Congress that called for $20,000 reparations payments to each former prisoner or their immediate relatives, along with money for a civil liberties education fund (''see'' Civil LIberties Act of 1988).[67][68]
Ralph Lazo, born in 1924 in Los Angeles, was of Mexican American and Irish descent, but when at age 16 he learned that his Japanese American friends and neighbors were being forcibly relocated and imprisoned at Manzanar, he was outraged. Lazo was so incensed that he joined friends on a train that took hundreds to Manzanar in May 1942.[69][70] Manzanar officials never asked him about his ancestry.
"Internment was immoral," Lazo told the ''Los Angeles Times''. "It was wrong, and I couldn't accept it." "These people hadn't done anything that I hadn't done except to go to Japanese language school."[71]
In 1944, Lazo was elected president of his class at Manzanar High School. He remained at Manzanar until August of that year, when he was inducted into the US Army, serving as a Staff Sergeant in the South Pacific until 1946, helping liberate the Philippines. Lazo was awarded the Bronze Star for heroism in combat. After the war, he was a strong supporter of redress and reparations for Japanese Americans imprisoned during the war. The film, '', from Visual Communications, documents his life story, particularly his stand against the internment. Stand Up for Justice:The Ralph Lazo Story
Toyo Miyatake, who was born in Kagawa, Shikoku, Japan, in 1896, immigrated to the United States in 1909. He settled in the Little Tokyo section of Los Angeles, and was imprisoned at Manzanar along with his family. A photographer, Miyatake, smuggled a lens and film holder into Manzanar and later had a craftsman construct a wooden box with a door that hid the lens. He took many now-famous photos of life and the conditions at Manzanar, even though his contraband camera was eventually discovered by the camp administration and confiscated. However, camp director Ralph Merritt eventually allowed Miyatake to photograph freely within the camp, even though he was not allowed to actually press the shutter button, requiring a guard or camp official to perform this simple task. Merritt finally saw no point to this technicality, and allowed Miyatake to take photos himself.[72]
Sadao Munemori volunteered for service with the US Army directly from Manzanar, and served in Europe with the 100th Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his courage when he single-handedly knocked out two machine guns and dove on a grenade, smothering its blast—sacrificing his own life to save two comrades near Seravezza, Italy, on April 5, 1945.[73]
Harry Ueno, born in Hawaii in 1907, was a ''Kibei'' (Japanese American educated in Japan) who was imprisoned at Manzanar with his wife and children.[74] After volunteering for mess hall work, Ueno discovered that Manzanar camp staff were stealing rationed sugar and meat and selling them on the black market.[75] Ueno exposed the thefts, and worked to organize prisoner workers in order to deal with them.[76] This led to his arrest, and made Ueno the focal point of the Manzanar Riot.[77] Ueno was one of the prisoners featured in Emiko Omori's Emmy Award-winning film ''Rabbit in the Moon''.[78]
"Ueno made us aware there was opposition in the camps," said Omori. "He made us feel that people did fight back and made us realize that one person can make a difference."
Karl Yoneda was born in Glendale, California, on July 15, 1906, but his family moved to Japan in 1913.[79][80] He became an activist early in his life. With Japan on a path towards war, Yoneda returned to the United States rather than face being drafted into the Japanese Army, and he arrived in San Francisco on December 14, 1926. He was taken to the Immigration Detention House on Angel Island, where he was detained for two months, despite having his California birth certificate. Yoneda later moved to Los Angeles, where he found work organizing with the Trade Union Educational League, and later the Japanese Workers' Association. Yoneda arrived at Manzanar on March 22, 1942, one of the first Japanese Americans to arrive as one of the men who volunteered to help build the camp.[81] Yoneda later distinguished himself in service to his country, volunteering to serve in the Military Intelligence Service.[82] After the war, Yoneda continued to support progressive causes and civil and human rights issues.
In 1969, about 150 people departed Los Angeles by car and bus, headed for Manzanar.[83] It was the "first" annual Manzanar Pilgrimage. But as it turned out, two ministers, Reverends Sentoku Maeda and Soichi Wakahiro, had been making annual pilgrimages to Manzanar since the camp closed in 1945.
The non-profit Manzanar Committee, formerly led by Sue Kunitomi Embrey, has sponsored the Pilgrimage on the last Saturday of April since 1969. Hundreds of visitors of all ages and backgrounds, including some former prisoners, gather at the Manzanar cemetery to remember the internment and to learn about it in the hope that what is generally accepted to be a tragic chapter in American history is neither forgotten nor repeated. The program traditionally consists of speakers, cultural performances, an interfaith service, and Ondo dancing.
In 1997, the Manzanar At Dusk program became a part of the Pilgrimage.[84] The program also attracts local area residents, as well as descendents of Manzanar's ranch days and of town residents. Through small-group discussions, the event gives participants the opportunity to hear about the experiences of former prisoners first-hand, to share their experiences and feelings about what they learned, and talk about the relevance of what happened at Manzanar to their own present-day experiences.
The Committee's efforts resulted in the State of California naming Manzanar as California Historical Landmark # 850 in 1972, with an historical marker being placed at the sentry post on April 14, 1973.[85][86]
The Manzanar Committee also spearheaded efforts for Manzanar to be listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and in February 1985, Manzanar was designated a National Historic Landmark. Embrey and the Committee also led the effort to have Manzanar designated a National Historic Site, and on March 3, 1992, President George H. W. Bush signed House Resolution 543 into law (Public Law 102-248; 106 Stat. 40). This act of Congress established the Manzanar National Historic Site "to provide for the protection and interpretation of the historical, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II."[87] Five years later, the National Park Service acquired of land at Manzanar from the City of Los Angeles.
Today, in 2007, it features an Interpretive Center housed in the historically restored Manzanar High School Auditorium, which has a permanent exhibit that tells the stories of the prisoners at Manzanar, the Owens Valley Paiute, the ranchers, the town of Manzanar, and water in the Owens Valley.[88] The site also features restored sentry posts at the camp entrance, a replica of a camp watchtower, a self-guided tour road, and informational markers.[89] Staff also offer guided tours and other educational programs,[90] including a Junior Ranger educational program for children between four and fifteen years of age.[91] The National Park Service is also working to restore an historic mess hall, build a replica of a portion of a residential block, including barracks, and replant some of the historic vegetation.[92] They are also taking oral histories of former prisoners and others from all periods of Manzanar's history.
Channel 3's song titled "Manzanar" is about the internment.
The 1994 award-winning novel ''Snow Falling on Cedars'' by David Guterson contains many scenes and details relating to Japanese Americans from the Puget Sound, Washington, area and their internment experiences at Manzanar, as does the 2000 film (directed by Scott Hicks) based on the book.
Fort Minor's song "Kenji," from the album ''The Rising Tied'' (2005), tells the true story of Mike Shinoda's family and their experiences before, during, and after World War II, including their imprisonment at Manzanar.
The Asian American jazz fusion band Hiroshima has a song entitled "Manzanar" on its album ''The Bridge'' (2003). It is an instrumental song that was inspired by Manzanar and the Japanese American Internment.[93] Also, its song ''Living In America'', on its album entitled ''East'' (1990), contains the phrase "I still remember Manzanar" in its lyrics.
★ Born Free and Equal
★ Dorothea Lange
★ Japanese American Internment
★ Other camps:
★
★ Gila River War Relocation Center
★
★ Granada War Relocation Center
★
★ Heart Mountain War Relocation Center
★
★ Jerome War Relocation Center
★
★ Minidoka Internment National Monument
★
★ Poston War Relocation Center
★
★ Rohwer War Relocation Center
★
★ Topaz War Relocation Center
★
★ Tule Lake War Relocation Center
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42. Densho: Sites of Shame: Manzanar
43. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
44. Manzanar National Historic Site - Manzanar Free Press Index (U.S. National Park Service)
45. Barbed Wire And Free Press Steve Chawkins
46. Densho: From The Archive
47. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
48. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
49. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
50. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
51. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
52. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
53. I Rei To: Archaeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California, Burton, Jeffery F., Haines, Jeremy D., Farrell, Mary M., , , Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, 2001, Publications in Anthropology 79
54. I Rei To: Archeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California, Burton, Haines, Farrell, , , , ,
55. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
56. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
57. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
58. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Site, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
59.
60. Sue Embrey, 83, Led Movement to Preserve Manzanar Muranaka, Gwen Gunji, Nao
61. Destructive Force: Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga's Gendered Labor in the Japanese American Redress Movement, , Thomas Y., Fujita-Rony, Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies,
62. Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two, Unrau, Harlan D., , , National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, 1996,
63. William Minoru Hohri: Visionary, Writer and Activist for Resisters of Injustice Philip Taijitsu Nash
64. Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress, Hohri, William Minoru, , , Washington State University Press, 1988, 0-87422-034-3
65. Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress, Hohri, , , , ,
66. Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two, Unrau, , , , ,
67. Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress, Hohri, , , , ,
68. A Nation's Apology Stephen Magagnini
69. Densho: Reading: The Incarceration Years
70. Who Was Ralph Lazo? Janice Yen
71. Ralph Lazo - A True Friend
72. Manzanar National Historic Site - Photo Gallery (U.S. National Park Service)
73. Medal Of Honor Recipients: World War II (M-S)
74. Harry Yoshio Ueno, Manzanar Martyr, Dies at 97 Sam Chu Lin
75. Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson, , , The Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton, 1986, 0-930046-07-2
76. Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson, , , , ,
77. Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson, , , , ,
78. Rabbit in the Moon: About the Film - PBS
79. Karl Yoneda, Working Class Hero Tom Price
80. Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker, , Karl, Yoneda, UCLA Asian American Studies Center, Regents of the University of California, , 0-934052-07-7
81. Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker, , Karl, Yoneda, , ,
82. Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker, , Karl, Yoneda, , ,
83. Manzanar History
84. Manzanar After Dark
85. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee., , , Manzanar Committee, 1998, none
86. Inyo: California Historical Landmarks
87. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
88. Manzanar National Historic Site: Interpretive Center (U.S. National Park Service)
89. Manzanar National Historic Site: Outdoor Activities (U.S. National Park Service)
90. Manzanar National Historic Site: Guided Tours (U.S. National Park Service)
91. Manzanar National Historic Site: Be A Junior Ranger (U.S. National Park Service)
92.
93. Bridge
★ The Archeology of Somewhere: Archeological Testing Along U.S. Highway 395, Manzanar National Historic Site, Burton, Jeff., , , Western Archeological Center, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, 1998, Publications in Anthropology 72 (''Covers archeological finds at Manzanar from the pre-World War II, wartime and post-war periods'')
★ Story Of Inyo, Chalfant, William A., , , Chalfant Press, 1980, ISBN 0-912494-34-4
★ A Land Between: Owens Valley, California, Ewan, Rebecca Fish., , , The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-801864-61-5
★ Vision or Villainy: Origins of the Owens Valley-Los Angeles Water Controversy, Hoffman, Abraham., , , Texas A&M University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-890965-09-9
★ Water and Power: The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley, Kahri, William L., , , University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 0-520050-68-1
★ The Water Seekers, Nadeau, Remi A., , , Crest Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-962710-45-8
★ Voices From This Long Brown Land: Oral Recollections of Owens Valley Lives and Manzanar Pasts, Wehrey, Jane., , , Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, ISBN 0-312295-41-3
★ Manzanar; Photographs by Ansel Adams, Armor, John and Wright, Peter., , , Vintage Books, 1989,
★ Born Free And Equal: The Story of Loyal Japanese Americans, Adams Ansel, Benti, Wynne (ed.), Embrey, Sue Kunitomi (contributor), Michael, Willian H. (contributor)., , , Spotted Dog Press, 2001, ISBN 1-893343-05-7
★ So Far from the Sea, Bunting, Eve, Soentpiet, Chris K., , , Clarion Books, 1998, ISBN 0-395720-95-8
★ Remembering Manzanar: Life In A Japanese Relocation Camp, Cooper, Michael., , , Clarion Books, 2002, ISBN 0-618067-78-7
★ The Lost Years: 1942–1946, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi., , , Moonlight Publications, 1972, ISBN 0-930046-07-2
★ Camp and Community: Manzanar and the Owens Valley, Garrett, Jessie A., Larson, Ronald C. (ed)., , , Japanese American Oral History Program: California State University, Fullerton, 1977, ISBN 0-930046-00-5
★ Farewell To Manzanar: A True Story of Japanese American Experience During and After the World War II Internment, Houston, Jeanne Wakatsuki., , , Laurel Leaf, 1983, ISBN 0-553272-58-6
★ Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience, Inada, Lawson Fusao (ed.), , , Heyday Books and the California Historical Society, 2000, ISBN 1-890771-30-9
★ From Barbed Wire to Barbed Hooks: Fishing Stories From Manzanar, Shiozaki, Cory, , , Cory Shiozaki, 2007,
★ Years Of Infamy: The Untold Story Of America's Concentration Camps, Weglyn, Michi, , , University of Washington Press, 1976, 1996, ISBN 0-295-97484-2
★ Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians., , , Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington Press, 1997, ISBN 0-295-97558-X
★ Japanese Americans From Relocation To Redress, Daniels, Roger, Kitano, Harry H.L., Taylor, Sandra C., , , University of Utah Press, 1986, ISBN 0-87480-258-X
★ Justice At War, Irons, Peter., , , Oxford University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-19-503273-X
★ Nanka Nikkei Voices: Resettlement Years, 1945–1955, Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California., , , Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California, 1998,
★ Achieving The Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress, Maki, Mitchell T., Kitano, Harry H.L., Berthold, S. Megan., , , University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02458-3
★ Tule Lake Revisited, Takei, Barbara, Tachibana, Julie, , , T & T Press, 2001, ISBN 0-971167-60-5
★ "American Indian Links to Manzanar," (PDF) by Larry Van Horn
★ Eastern California Museum
★ Manzanar Committee
★ Manzanar National Historic Site, National Park Service
★ Mono Basin Paiutes: Mono Lake And Owens Valley Native Americans
★ Prehistory of Owens Valley
★ Smithsonian Institution: A More Perfect Union
'Manzanar', located in California's Owens Valley, between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, is most widely known as the site of one of ten "camps" (''see'' Terminology section, below) where over 110,000 Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II. It is located approximately northeast of Los Angeles.
Manzanar (which means “apple orchard†in Spanish), located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, was identified as the best-preserved of the former camp sites by the United States National Park Service, and is now the Manzanar National Historic Site.[3]
Long before the first prisoners arrived in March 1942, Manzanar's history included settlement by Native Americans, who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area, and then ranchers and miners who established the town of Manzanar in 1910,[4] but had abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area. Yet as different as these groups might seem, they are tied together by the common thread of forced relocation. Since the last prisoners left Manzanar in 1945, former prisoners and others have worked to protect the site and to establish it as a National Historic Site that preserves and interprets the site for current and future generations. Although the primary focus is the Japanese American Internment era, Manzanar National Historic Site: General Management Plan and Environmental Statement, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, , , National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, August 1996, as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site, the site also interprets the town of Manzanar, the ranch days, the settlement by the Owens Valley Paiute (the indigenous people in the area), and the role that water played in shaping the history of the Owens Valley.[5]
Terminology
Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Manzanar and the other camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents were imprisoned by the United States Government during the war.[6][7] Concentration Camp Or Summer Camp? Robert Ito Manzanar has been referred to as a "War Relocation Center," "relocation camp," "relocation center," "internment camp," and "concentration camp." The controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues to the present day.[8][9][10]
Before World War II
Owens Valley Paiute woman weaving a basket
Owens Valley Paiute
Manzanar was first inhabited by Native Americans nearly 10,000 years ago, and approximately 1,500 years ago the area was settled by the Owens Valley Paiute, who ranged across the Owens Valley from Long Valley on the north to Owens Lake on the south, and from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the west to the Inyo Mountains on the east.[11] Other Native American nations in the region included the Miwok, Western Mono, and Tubatulabal to the west, the Shoshone to the south and east, and the Mono Lake Paiute to the north. The Owens Valley Paiute hunted, fished, collected pine nuts, raised crops utilizing irrigation in the Manzanar area,[12] and traded brown ware pottery for salt from the Saline Valley. They also traded other wares and goods across the Sierra Nevada during the summer and fall.[13]
In the early 1860s, after gold and silver were discovered in the Sierra Nevada and the Inyo Mountains, the Owens Valley Paiute, along with other native peoples in the region, were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon; they were forced by the United States Army at gunpoint to walk almost 200 miles (322 km) in one of many “Trails of Tears†inflicted upon Native Americans in United States history.[14][15] This action was preceded by years of conflict between the indigenous peoples of the region and white settlers, as Native Americans in the Owens Valley saw their way of life being threatened by the settlers, who grazed their cattle and mined in the area.[16]
Approximately one-third of the Native Americans in the Owens Valley were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon, but after 1863, many returned to their permanent villages that had been established along creeks flowing down from the Sierra Nevada mountains. In the Manzanar area, the Owens Valley Paiute had established villages along Bairs, Georges, Shepherds, and Symmes creeks. Evidence of Paiute settlement in the area is still present.
Manzanar Community Hall, ca. 1912. In back is Hatfield's (later Bandhauer's) General Store, which housed the post office
Ranchers
When white settlers first arrived in the Owens Valley in the mid-19th century they found a number of large Paiute villages in the Manzanar area.[17] John Shepherd, one of the first settlers, homesteaded of land three miles (4.8 km) north of Georges Creek in 1864. With the help of Owens Valley Paiute field workers and laborers,[18] his ranch eventually expanded to .[19]
In 1905, George Chaffey, an agricultural developer from Southern California, purchased Shepherd's ranch and subdivided it, along with other adjacent ranches, and founded the town of Manzanar in 1910.[20] Chaffey's Owens Valley Improvement Company built an irrigation system and planted thousands of fruit trees, and by 1920 the town had more than twenty-five homes, a two-room school, a town hall, and a general store. Also at that time, nearly of apple, pear, and peach trees were being grown, along with grapes, prunes, potatoes, corn, alfalfa and large vegetable and flower gardens.[21]
"Manzanar was a very happy place and a pleasant place to live during those years, with its peach, pear, and apple orchards, alfalfa fields, tree-lined country lanes, meadows and corn fields," said Martha Mills, who lived at Manzanar from 1916 to 1920.[22]
Some of the early orchards, along with some remnants of the town and ranches, are still present at Manzanar today.
Unlined portion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct near Manzanar (1991). Photo courtesy G. Donald Bain, Geo-Images Project, Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley
Quenching Los Angeles’s thirst
As early as March 1905, the City of Los Angeles began secretly acquiring water rights in the Owens Valley,[23][24] and it completed construction of its 233-mile (375 km) Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, conducting diverted Owens River water to Los Angeles instead of allowing it to drain into Owens Lake.[25][26] But it did not take long for Los Angeles water officials to realize that Owens River water was not enough to quench the thirst of a rapidly growing metropolis, and in 1920 they began to purchase more of the water rights on the Owens Valley floor. As the decade went on, the City of Los Angeles bought out one Owens Valley farmer after another, and even extended its reach northward into Mono County, including Long Valley.[27] By 1933, the City owned 85% of all town property and 95% of all ranch and farm land in the Owens Valley, including Manzanar.
Although there were those who sold their land (for prices that made them financially independent), a significant number chose to stay. But in dry years, Los Angeles pumped ground water and drained all surface water, diverting all of it into its aqueduct and leaving Owens Valley ranchers without water.[27]
"There was so much water during those early years, that when a horse pulled a buggy, the water frequently came up to the horse's knees," said Lucille DeBoer, who lived on a ranch at Manzanar. "When this happened, the children took off their shoes and socks to walk home. In the early 1900s the City of Los Angeles started to purchase ranches in the Owens Valley for the sole purpose of supplying water to the people in Los Angeles. People started to sell their land to the City; the City put in wells to drain the water out of the ground; the trees began to die; and the land finally turned to vacant dirt. This ended the Land of the Big Red Apples."
Even though they chose not to sell, without water for irrigation the holdout ranchers were forced out of their ranches and communities; that included the town of Manzanar, which was abandoned by 1929. Manzanar remained uninhabited until the Army leased from the City of Los Angeles for the Manzanar War Relocation Center.
Wartime: 1942–45
After the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States Government swiftly moved to begin solving the “Japanese Problem†on the West Coast of the United States,[29] and in the evening hours of that same day the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested selected “enemy†aliens, including 2,192 who were of Japanese descent.[30] On February 19 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which authorized the Secretary of War to designate military commanders to prescribe military areas and to exclude “any or all persons†from such areas. The order also authorized the construction of “relocation centers†to house those who were to be excluded.[31] This order resulted in the forced relocation of over 120,000 Japanese Americans—two-thirds of whom were native-born American citizens; the rest were prevented by federal law from becoming citizens. Over 110,000 of them were imprisoned in the ten camps.
Manzanar was the first camp to be established.[32] Initially, it was a temporary “reception centerâ€, known as the ''Owens Valley Reception Center'' from March 21, 1942, to May 31, 1942. At that time, it was operated by the Army's Wartime Civilian Control Administration (WCCA).[33]
The Owens Valley Reception Center was transferred to the War Relocation Authority (WRA) on June 1, 1942, and officially became the "Manzanar War Relocation Center." The first Japanese American prisoners to arrive at Manzanar were "volunteers" who helped build the camp, but by mid-April up to 1,000 Japanese Americans were arriving daily, and by July the population of the camp neared 10,000.[34] Over 90% of the prisoners were from the Los Angeles area, with the rest coming from Stockton, California, and Bainbridge Island, Washington. Manzanar held 10,046 prisoners at its peak, and a total of 11,070 people were imprisoned there.
Climate
The weather at Manzanar had a tremendous impact on the prisoners, few of whom were accustomed to the extremes of the area's climate. The Owens Valley lies at an elevation of about 4,000 feet (1,200 m).[35] Summers on the desert floor of the Owens Valley are generally hot, with temperatures exceeding the 100 °F (39 °C) mark not uncommon. Winters can be very cold, with occasional snowfall and daytime temperatures that often drop into the 40 °F (4.4 °C) range. At night, temperatures are generally 30–40 °F (17–22 °C) lower than the daytime highs, and high winds are common day or night. The area's mean annual precipitation is barely five inches (12.7 cm). The ever-present dust was a continual problem due to the frequent high winds, so much so that prisoners usually woke up in the morning covered from head to toe with a fine layer of dust, and barracks constantly had to be swept.[36]
"In the summer, the heat was unbearable," said former Manzanar prisoner Ralph Lazo (''see'' Notable Manzanar prisoners section, below). "In the winter, the sparsely rationed oil didn't adequately heat the tar paper covered pine barracks with the knotholes in the floor. The wind would blow so hard, it would toss rocks around."[37]
Camp layout and facilities
The camp site was situated on at Manzanar, leased from the City of Los Angeles, with the developed portion covering approximately .[38] The residential area was about one square mile (2.6 km²), and consisted of 36 blocks of hastily constructed,[39] 20-foot (6.1 m) by 100-foot (30.5 m) tarpaper barracks, with each prisoner family living in a single 20-foot (6.1 m) by 25-foot (7.6 m) “apartment†in the barracks. These apartments consisted of partitions with no ceilings, eliminating any chance of privacy.[40][41] To be sure, privacy was a major problem for the prisoners, especially since the camp had communal men's and women's latrines.
“…One of the hardest things to endure was the communal latrines, with no partitions; and showers with no stalls,†said former Manzanar prisoner Rosie Kakuuchi.
Each residential block also had a communal mess hall, a laundry room, a recreation hall, an ironing room, and a heating oil storage tank, although Block 33 lacked a recreation hall. In addition to the residential blocks, Manzanar had 34 additional blocks that had staff housing, camp administration offices, two warehouses, a garage, a camp hospital, and 24 firebreaks. The camp also had sentry posts at the main entrance, school facilities, a high school auditorium, staff housing, chicken and hog farms, churches, a cemetery, a post office, a cooperative store, other shops, a camp newspaper, and other necessary amenities that one would expect to find in most American cities. Manzanar also had a camouflage net factory, an experimental plantation for producing natural rubber from the Guayule plant, and an orphanage called Children's Village, which housed 101 Japanese American orphans.[42] The camp perimeter had eight watchtowers manned by armed Military Police, and it was enclosed by five-strand barbed wire.
Female prisoners practicing calisthenics
Life behind the barbed wire
After being uprooted from their homes and communities, the prisoners found themselves having to endure primitive, sub-standard conditions, lack of privacy, and having to wait in one line after another for meals, at latrines, and at the laundry room.[43] Each camp was intended to be self-sufficient, and Manzanar was no exception. Cooperatives operated various services, such as the camp newspaper,[44][45][46] beauty and barber shops, shoe repair, and more. In addition, prisoners raised chickens, hogs, and vegetables, and cultivated the existing orchards for fruit. Prisoners even made their own soy sauce and tofu.
Food at Manzanar was based on military requirements. Meals usually consisted of hot rice and vegetables, since meat was scarce due to rationing. In early 1944, a chicken ranch began operation, and in late April of the same year, a hog farm was opened. Both operations provided a welcome supplement to the prisoners' diet.[47]
Most prisoners were employed at Manzanar to keep the camp running. Unskilled workers earned US$8 per month, semi-skilled workers earned $12 per month, skilled workers made $16 per month, and professionals earned $19 per month. In addition, all prisoners received $3.60 per month as a clothing allowance.
The prisoners also made Manzanar more liveable through recreation, and participated in sports, including baseball and football, and martial arts.[36] They also personalized and beautified their barren surroundings by building elaborate gardens, which often included pools, waterfalls, and rock ornaments. There was even a nine-hole golf course.[49] Remnants of some of the gardens, pools, and rock ornaments are still present at Manzanar.
Resistance
Although most prisoners quietly accepted their fate during World War II, there was some resistance in the camps. Poston, Heart Mountain, Topaz, and Tule Lake each had civil disturbances about wage differences, black marketing of sugar, intergenerational friction, rumors of “informers†reporting to the camp administration or the FBI, and other issues. However, the most serious incident occurred at Manzanar on December 5–6, 1942, and became known as the Manzanar Riot.[50]
After several months of tension between prisoners who supported the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) and a group of Kibei (Japanese Americans educated in Japan), rumors spread that sugar and meat shortages were the result of black marketing by camp administrators. To make matters worse, prisoner and JACL leader Fred Tayama was beaten by six masked men. Harry Ueno, the leader of the Kitchen Workers Union, was suspected of involvement and was arrested and removed from Manzanar. Soon after, 3,000 to 4,000 prisoners gathered and marched to the administration area, protesting Ueno's arrest. After Ueno's supporters negotiated with the camp administration, he was returned to the Manzanar jail, but a crowd of several hundred returned to protest. When the crowd surged forward, military police threw tear gas to disperse them. As people ran to avoid the tear gas, some in the crowd pushed a driverless truck toward the jail. At that moment, the military police fired into the crowd, killing a 17-year-old boy instantly. A 21-year-old man who was shot in the abdomen died days later. Nine other prisoners were wounded, and a military police corporal was wounded by a ricocheting bullet.[51]
Monument at Manzanar cemetery, 2002
Closure
On November 21, 1945, the WRA closed Manzanar, the sixth camp to be closed. Although the prisoners had been brought to the Owens Valley by the United States Government, they had to leave the camp on their own,[52] with the WRA giving $25, one-way train or bus fare, and meals to those who had less than $600. While many left the camp voluntarily, a significant number refused to leave because they had no place to go after having lost everything when they were forcibly uprooted and removed from their homes. As such, they had to be forcibly removed once again, this time from Manzanar. Indeed, those who refused to leave were generally kicked out of their barracks, sometimes by force, even if they had no place to go.
One hundred forty-six prisoners died at Manzanar.[53] Fifteen prisoners were buried there, but only five graves remain, as most were later reburied elsewhere by their families.[54]
The Manzanar cemetery site is marked by a monument that was built by prisoner stone mason Ryozo Kado in 1943.[55] An inscription in Japanese on the front of the monument reads, æ…°éˆå¡” (Soul Consoling Tower). The inscription on the back reads "Erected by the Manzanar Japanese" on the left, and "August 1943" on the right. Today, the monument is often draped in strings of origami, and sometimes offerings of personal items are left by survivors and other visitors. The National Park Service periodically collects and catalogues these items.
After the camp was closed, the site eventually returned to its original state, and within a couple of years all the structures had been removed, with the exception of the two sentry posts at the entrance, the cemetery monument, and the former Manzanar High School auditorium, which was purchased by the County of Inyo. The County leased the auditorium to the Independence Veterans of Foreign Wars, who used it as a meeting facility and community theater until 1951. After that, the building was used as a maintenance facility by the Inyo County Road Department.[56]
As of 2007, the site also retains numerous building foundations, portions of the water and sewer systems, the outline of the road grid, remains of the landscaping constructed by prisoners, and much more. And despite four years of use by the prisoners, the site also retains evidence of the ranches and of the town of Manzanar, as well as artifacts from the days of the Owens Valley Paiute settlement.[57][58]
Notable prisoners
Sue Kunitomi Embrey, born on January 6, 1923, was an editor of the ''Manzanar Free Press'', the camp newspaper, and wove camouflage nets to support the war effort. She left Manzanar in late 1943 for Madison, Wisconsin and one year later moved to Chicago, Illinois. She returned to California in 1948 and went on to become a schoolteacher and a labor and community activist.[59] In 1969, Embrey was one of approximately 150 people who attended the first organized Manzanar Pilgrimage (''see'' Manzanar Pilgrimage section, below) and was one of the founders of the annual event. She also went on to become the primary force behind the preservation of the site and its gaining National Historic Site status.[60]
Aiko Yoshinaga-Herzig, born in 1925 in Los Angeles, was 17 years old when she was imprisoned at Manzanar. Later, she was incarcerated at Jerome and Rohwer, Arkansas.[61] Yoshinaga-Herzig later moved to New York where she became a community activist in the 1960s and was a member of Asian Americans for Action (AAA), the first Asian American political organization on the East Coast, which included Asian American activists Bill and Yuri Kochiyama. Although she was not trained to be an archival researcher, Yoshinaga-Herzig decided to find out what historical documents about herself and her family might exist at the National Archives.
Ralph Lazo in a group photo at Manzanar
Yoshinaga-Herzig and her husband, John "Jack" Herzig, pored over mountains of documents from the War Relocation Authority, a task that "was roughly equivalent to indexing all the information in a library, working from a card catalog that only gave a subject description by shelf, without giving individual book titles or authors." Their efforts resulted in the discovery of evidence that the US Government perjured itself before the United States Supreme Court in the 1944 cases ''Korematsu v. United States'', ''Hirabayashi v. United States,'' and ''Yasui v. United States'' by presenting falsified evidence to the Court, by destroying evidence, and by withholding other vital information,[62] thus providing the legal basis Japanese Americans needed to seek redress and reparations for their wartime imprisonment. The Herzigs' research was also valuable in their work with the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress (NCJAR), which filed a class action lawsuit against the US Government on behalf of the prisoners, though the US Supreme Court ruled against the plaintiff.
Photographer Toyo Miyatake
William Minoru Hohri, born in San Francisco, California, in 1927,[63] was imprisoned at Manzanar when he was 15 years old. His family entered Manzanar on April 3, 1942, and remained behind the barbed wire until August 25, 1945.[64] Hohri became a civil rights and anti-war activist after World War II, and in the late 1970s he became the chair of NCJAR, which brought a class action lawsuit against the US Government on March 16, 1983, asserting that it had unjustly imprisoned Japanese Americans during World War II.[65] The lawsuit stated 22 causes of action, including 15 alleged violations of constitutional rights, and sought $27 billion in damages.[66] Despite the fact the US Supreme Court eventually ruled against the class action plaintiffs, the lawsuit helped bring the case for redress and reparations to the public eye and showed the Congress and the Executive Branch that the US Government would have far greater exposure in the still-pending lawsuit than in legislation in Congress that called for $20,000 reparations payments to each former prisoner or their immediate relatives, along with money for a civil liberties education fund (''see'' Civil LIberties Act of 1988).[67][68]
"...(The class action lawsuit) remained active until after Congress had passed the redress legislation. While it remained alive, it played a significant part in publicizing the issues. The NCJAR lawsuit demanded $220,000 for each individual whose liberties had been denied. This was more than twenty times greater than the $20,000 per surviving incarcerated person that the redress bills proposed, allowing proponents to portray the legislative solution as a moderate alternative."
PFC Sadao S. Munemori
Ralph Lazo, born in 1924 in Los Angeles, was of Mexican American and Irish descent, but when at age 16 he learned that his Japanese American friends and neighbors were being forcibly relocated and imprisoned at Manzanar, he was outraged. Lazo was so incensed that he joined friends on a train that took hundreds to Manzanar in May 1942.[69][70] Manzanar officials never asked him about his ancestry.
"Internment was immoral," Lazo told the ''Los Angeles Times''. "It was wrong, and I couldn't accept it." "These people hadn't done anything that I hadn't done except to go to Japanese language school."[71]
In 1944, Lazo was elected president of his class at Manzanar High School. He remained at Manzanar until August of that year, when he was inducted into the US Army, serving as a Staff Sergeant in the South Pacific until 1946, helping liberate the Philippines. Lazo was awarded the Bronze Star for heroism in combat. After the war, he was a strong supporter of redress and reparations for Japanese Americans imprisoned during the war. The film, '', from Visual Communications, documents his life story, particularly his stand against the internment. Stand Up for Justice:The Ralph Lazo Story
Toyo Miyatake, who was born in Kagawa, Shikoku, Japan, in 1896, immigrated to the United States in 1909. He settled in the Little Tokyo section of Los Angeles, and was imprisoned at Manzanar along with his family. A photographer, Miyatake, smuggled a lens and film holder into Manzanar and later had a craftsman construct a wooden box with a door that hid the lens. He took many now-famous photos of life and the conditions at Manzanar, even though his contraband camera was eventually discovered by the camp administration and confiscated. However, camp director Ralph Merritt eventually allowed Miyatake to photograph freely within the camp, even though he was not allowed to actually press the shutter button, requiring a guard or camp official to perform this simple task. Merritt finally saw no point to this technicality, and allowed Miyatake to take photos himself.[72]
Sadao Munemori volunteered for service with the US Army directly from Manzanar, and served in Europe with the 100th Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his courage when he single-handedly knocked out two machine guns and dove on a grenade, smothering its blast—sacrificing his own life to save two comrades near Seravezza, Italy, on April 5, 1945.[73]
Harry Ueno, born in Hawaii in 1907, was a ''Kibei'' (Japanese American educated in Japan) who was imprisoned at Manzanar with his wife and children.[74] After volunteering for mess hall work, Ueno discovered that Manzanar camp staff were stealing rationed sugar and meat and selling them on the black market.[75] Ueno exposed the thefts, and worked to organize prisoner workers in order to deal with them.[76] This led to his arrest, and made Ueno the focal point of the Manzanar Riot.[77] Ueno was one of the prisoners featured in Emiko Omori's Emmy Award-winning film ''Rabbit in the Moon''.[78]
"Ueno made us aware there was opposition in the camps," said Omori. "He made us feel that people did fight back and made us realize that one person can make a difference."
Karl Yoneda was born in Glendale, California, on July 15, 1906, but his family moved to Japan in 1913.[79][80] He became an activist early in his life. With Japan on a path towards war, Yoneda returned to the United States rather than face being drafted into the Japanese Army, and he arrived in San Francisco on December 14, 1926. He was taken to the Immigration Detention House on Angel Island, where he was detained for two months, despite having his California birth certificate. Yoneda later moved to Los Angeles, where he found work organizing with the Trade Union Educational League, and later the Japanese Workers' Association. Yoneda arrived at Manzanar on March 22, 1942, one of the first Japanese Americans to arrive as one of the men who volunteered to help build the camp.[81] Yoneda later distinguished himself in service to his country, volunteering to serve in the Military Intelligence Service.[82] After the war, Yoneda continued to support progressive causes and civil and human rights issues.
Preservation and remembrance
Manzanar Pilgrimage
In 1969, about 150 people departed Los Angeles by car and bus, headed for Manzanar.[83] It was the "first" annual Manzanar Pilgrimage. But as it turned out, two ministers, Reverends Sentoku Maeda and Soichi Wakahiro, had been making annual pilgrimages to Manzanar since the camp closed in 1945.
The non-profit Manzanar Committee, formerly led by Sue Kunitomi Embrey, has sponsored the Pilgrimage on the last Saturday of April since 1969. Hundreds of visitors of all ages and backgrounds, including some former prisoners, gather at the Manzanar cemetery to remember the internment and to learn about it in the hope that what is generally accepted to be a tragic chapter in American history is neither forgotten nor repeated. The program traditionally consists of speakers, cultural performances, an interfaith service, and Ondo dancing.
In 1997, the Manzanar At Dusk program became a part of the Pilgrimage.[84] The program also attracts local area residents, as well as descendents of Manzanar's ranch days and of town residents. Through small-group discussions, the event gives participants the opportunity to hear about the experiences of former prisoners first-hand, to share their experiences and feelings about what they learned, and talk about the relevance of what happened at Manzanar to their own present-day experiences.
California Historical Landmark
The Committee's efforts resulted in the State of California naming Manzanar as California Historical Landmark # 850 in 1972, with an historical marker being placed at the sentry post on April 14, 1973.[85][86]
National Historic Landmark and National Historic Site
The Manzanar Committee also spearheaded efforts for Manzanar to be listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and in February 1985, Manzanar was designated a National Historic Landmark. Embrey and the Committee also led the effort to have Manzanar designated a National Historic Site, and on March 3, 1992, President George H. W. Bush signed House Resolution 543 into law (Public Law 102-248; 106 Stat. 40). This act of Congress established the Manzanar National Historic Site "to provide for the protection and interpretation of the historical, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II."[87] Five years later, the National Park Service acquired of land at Manzanar from the City of Los Angeles.
Today, in 2007, it features an Interpretive Center housed in the historically restored Manzanar High School Auditorium, which has a permanent exhibit that tells the stories of the prisoners at Manzanar, the Owens Valley Paiute, the ranchers, the town of Manzanar, and water in the Owens Valley.[88] The site also features restored sentry posts at the camp entrance, a replica of a camp watchtower, a self-guided tour road, and informational markers.[89] Staff also offer guided tours and other educational programs,[90] including a Junior Ranger educational program for children between four and fifteen years of age.[91] The National Park Service is also working to restore an historic mess hall, build a replica of a portion of a residential block, including barracks, and replant some of the historic vegetation.[92] They are also taking oral histories of former prisoners and others from all periods of Manzanar's history.
Other works
Channel 3's song titled "Manzanar" is about the internment.
The 1994 award-winning novel ''Snow Falling on Cedars'' by David Guterson contains many scenes and details relating to Japanese Americans from the Puget Sound, Washington, area and their internment experiences at Manzanar, as does the 2000 film (directed by Scott Hicks) based on the book.
Fort Minor's song "Kenji," from the album ''The Rising Tied'' (2005), tells the true story of Mike Shinoda's family and their experiences before, during, and after World War II, including their imprisonment at Manzanar.
The Asian American jazz fusion band Hiroshima has a song entitled "Manzanar" on its album ''The Bridge'' (2003). It is an instrumental song that was inspired by Manzanar and the Japanese American Internment.[93] Also, its song ''Living In America'', on its album entitled ''East'' (1990), contains the phrase "I still remember Manzanar" in its lyrics.
See also
★ Born Free and Equal
★ Dorothea Lange
★ Japanese American Internment
★ Other camps:
★
★ Gila River War Relocation Center
★
★ Granada War Relocation Center
★
★ Heart Mountain War Relocation Center
★
★ Jerome War Relocation Center
★
★ Minidoka Internment National Monument
★
★ Poston War Relocation Center
★
★ Rohwer War Relocation Center
★
★ Topaz War Relocation Center
★
★ Tule Lake War Relocation Center
References
1. Park Visitation Report: Manzanar
2. Manzanar National Historic Site: Public Use Counting and Reporting Instructions
3. Manzanar National Historic Site: History & Culture (U.S. National Park Service)
4. Manzanar National Historic Site - Orchard Community (U.S. National Park Service)
5. Manzanar National Historic Site - Congressional Record - House
6. The Manzanar Controversy
7. Incarceration of the Japanese Americans: A Sixty-Year Perspective, , Roger, Daniels, The History Teacher,
8. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , Manzanar Committee, 1998,
9. CLPEF Resolution Regarding Terminology
10. Densho: Terminology & Glossary: A Note On Terminology
11. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14, Burton, Jeffery F., , , Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, 1996, Publications in Anthropology 67
12. Manzanar National Historic Site - Owens Valley Paiute (U.S. National Park Service)
13. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14, Burton, , , , ,
14. Native American Consultations and Ethnographic Assessment: The Paiutes and Shoshones of Owens Valley, California, Van Horn, Lawrence F., , , Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, Denver Service Center, 1995,
15. Fort Tejon, California
16. California and the Indian Wars: The Owens Valley Indian War, 1861–1865
17. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14, Burton, , , , ,
18. Manzanar National Historic Site - Miners and Homesteaders (U.S. National Park Service)
19. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14, Burton, , , , ,
20. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14, Burton, , , , ,
21. Following Manzanar: A Life Story, , Lucille, DeBoer, The Album, Times & Tales of Inyo-Mono,
22. Manzanar National Historic Site - People (U.S. National Park Service)
23. Deepest Valley, Smith, Genny Schumacher, , , Genny Smith Books, 1969, 1978, 0-931378-01-X
24. TED Case Studies: The Los Angeles Aqueduct and the Owens and Mono Lakes (MONO Case), , Kevin, Neal, TED Case Studies,
25. LADWP: History and Facts: LA Aqueduct
26. LADWP: Los Angeles Aqueduct Facts
27. Deepest Valley, Smith, , , , ,
28. Deepest Valley, Smith, , , , ,
29. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
30. Densho: Causes of the Incarceration
31. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
32. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
33. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Jeffery F., Farrell, Mary M., Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W., , , Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, 1999, Publications in Anthropology 74
34. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
35. Manzanar National Historic Site - Weather (U.S. National Park Service)
36. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
37. Following His Beliefs Led Him To Manzanar Cecilia Rasmussen
38. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
39. Manzanar National Historic Site - Japanese Americans at Manzanar (U.S. National Park Service)
40. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
41. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
42. Densho: Sites of Shame: Manzanar
43. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
44. Manzanar National Historic Site - Manzanar Free Press Index (U.S. National Park Service)
45. Barbed Wire And Free Press Steve Chawkins
46. Densho: From The Archive
47. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
48. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
49. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
50. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
51. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
52. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
53. I Rei To: Archaeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California, Burton, Jeffery F., Haines, Jeremy D., Farrell, Mary M., , , Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, 2001, Publications in Anthropology 79
54. I Rei To: Archeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California, Burton, Haines, Farrell, , , , ,
55. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
56. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
57. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
58. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Site, Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W, , , , ,
59.
60. Sue Embrey, 83, Led Movement to Preserve Manzanar Muranaka, Gwen Gunji, Nao
61. Destructive Force: Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga's Gendered Labor in the Japanese American Redress Movement, , Thomas Y., Fujita-Rony, Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies,
62. Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two, Unrau, Harlan D., , , National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, 1996,
63. William Minoru Hohri: Visionary, Writer and Activist for Resisters of Injustice Philip Taijitsu Nash
64. Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress, Hohri, William Minoru, , , Washington State University Press, 1988, 0-87422-034-3
65. Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress, Hohri, , , , ,
66. Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two, Unrau, , , , ,
67. Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress, Hohri, , , , ,
68. A Nation's Apology Stephen Magagnini
69. Densho: Reading: The Incarceration Years
70. Who Was Ralph Lazo? Janice Yen
71. Ralph Lazo - A True Friend
72. Manzanar National Historic Site - Photo Gallery (U.S. National Park Service)
73. Medal Of Honor Recipients: World War II (M-S)
74. Harry Yoshio Ueno, Manzanar Martyr, Dies at 97 Sam Chu Lin
75. Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson, , , The Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton, 1986, 0-930046-07-2
76. Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson, , , , ,
77. Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson, , , , ,
78. Rabbit in the Moon: About the Film - PBS
79. Karl Yoneda, Working Class Hero Tom Price
80. Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker, , Karl, Yoneda, UCLA Asian American Studies Center, Regents of the University of California, , 0-934052-07-7
81. Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker, , Karl, Yoneda, , ,
82. Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker, , Karl, Yoneda, , ,
83. Manzanar History
84. Manzanar After Dark
85. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee., , , Manzanar Committee, 1998, none
86. Inyo: California Historical Landmarks
87. Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar, Manzanar Committee, , , , ,
88. Manzanar National Historic Site: Interpretive Center (U.S. National Park Service)
89. Manzanar National Historic Site: Outdoor Activities (U.S. National Park Service)
90. Manzanar National Historic Site: Guided Tours (U.S. National Park Service)
91. Manzanar National Historic Site: Be A Junior Ranger (U.S. National Park Service)
92.
93. Bridge
Additional reading
Owens Valley resources
★ The Archeology of Somewhere: Archeological Testing Along U.S. Highway 395, Manzanar National Historic Site, Burton, Jeff., , , Western Archeological Center, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, 1998, Publications in Anthropology 72 (''Covers archeological finds at Manzanar from the pre-World War II, wartime and post-war periods'')
★ Story Of Inyo, Chalfant, William A., , , Chalfant Press, 1980, ISBN 0-912494-34-4
★ A Land Between: Owens Valley, California, Ewan, Rebecca Fish., , , The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-801864-61-5
★ Vision or Villainy: Origins of the Owens Valley-Los Angeles Water Controversy, Hoffman, Abraham., , , Texas A&M University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-890965-09-9
★ Water and Power: The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley, Kahri, William L., , , University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 0-520050-68-1
★ The Water Seekers, Nadeau, Remi A., , , Crest Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-962710-45-8
★ Voices From This Long Brown Land: Oral Recollections of Owens Valley Lives and Manzanar Pasts, Wehrey, Jane., , , Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, ISBN 0-312295-41-3
Wartime-related resources
★ Manzanar; Photographs by Ansel Adams, Armor, John and Wright, Peter., , , Vintage Books, 1989,
★ Born Free And Equal: The Story of Loyal Japanese Americans, Adams Ansel, Benti, Wynne (ed.), Embrey, Sue Kunitomi (contributor), Michael, Willian H. (contributor)., , , Spotted Dog Press, 2001, ISBN 1-893343-05-7
★ So Far from the Sea, Bunting, Eve, Soentpiet, Chris K., , , Clarion Books, 1998, ISBN 0-395720-95-8
★ Remembering Manzanar: Life In A Japanese Relocation Camp, Cooper, Michael., , , Clarion Books, 2002, ISBN 0-618067-78-7
★ The Lost Years: 1942–1946, Embrey, Sue Kunitomi., , , Moonlight Publications, 1972, ISBN 0-930046-07-2
★ Camp and Community: Manzanar and the Owens Valley, Garrett, Jessie A., Larson, Ronald C. (ed)., , , Japanese American Oral History Program: California State University, Fullerton, 1977, ISBN 0-930046-00-5
★ Farewell To Manzanar: A True Story of Japanese American Experience During and After the World War II Internment, Houston, Jeanne Wakatsuki., , , Laurel Leaf, 1983, ISBN 0-553272-58-6
★ Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience, Inada, Lawson Fusao (ed.), , , Heyday Books and the California Historical Society, 2000, ISBN 1-890771-30-9
★ From Barbed Wire to Barbed Hooks: Fishing Stories From Manzanar, Shiozaki, Cory, , , Cory Shiozaki, 2007,
★ Years Of Infamy: The Untold Story Of America's Concentration Camps, Weglyn, Michi, , , University of Washington Press, 1976, 1996, ISBN 0-295-97484-2
Post-War-related resources
★ Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians., , , Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington Press, 1997, ISBN 0-295-97558-X
★ Japanese Americans From Relocation To Redress, Daniels, Roger, Kitano, Harry H.L., Taylor, Sandra C., , , University of Utah Press, 1986, ISBN 0-87480-258-X
★ Justice At War, Irons, Peter., , , Oxford University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-19-503273-X
★ Nanka Nikkei Voices: Resettlement Years, 1945–1955, Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California., , , Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California, 1998,
★ Achieving The Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress, Maki, Mitchell T., Kitano, Harry H.L., Berthold, S. Megan., , , University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02458-3
★ Tule Lake Revisited, Takei, Barbara, Tachibana, Julie, , , T & T Press, 2001, ISBN 0-971167-60-5
External links
★ "American Indian Links to Manzanar," (PDF) by Larry Van Horn
★ Eastern California Museum
★ Manzanar Committee
★ Manzanar National Historic Site, National Park Service
★ Mono Basin Paiutes: Mono Lake And Owens Valley Native Americans
★ Prehistory of Owens Valley
★ Smithsonian Institution: A More Perfect Union
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