'Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr.',
National Hero of Jamaica (
August 17,
1887 –
June 10,
1940), was a
publisher,
journalist,
entrepreneur,
Black nationalist,
orator,
black separatist, and founder of the
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL).
[1]
Garvey was born in St. Ann's Bay,
Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica to Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Sr., a
mason, and Sarah Jane Richards, a domestic worker and
farmer. Of his eleven siblings, only Garvey and his sister, Indiana, reached maturity. Garvey's father was known to have a large library, and it was from his father that he gained his love for reading.
[2]
Garvey is best remembered as an important proponent of the
Back-to-Africa movement, which encouraged those of African descent to return to their ancestral
homelands.
[3] This movement would eventually inspire other movements, ranging from the
Nation of Islam, to the
Rastafari movement, which proclaims Garvey to be a prophet. Garvey said he wanted those of
African ancestry to "" Africa and for the
European colonial powers to leave it.
Early years
Sometime in the year 1900 Garvey entered into an apprenticeship with his godfather Alfred Burrowes. Like his father, Mr. Burrowes had an extensive library of which Garvey made good use.
[4]
Near the age of fourteen, Garvey left St. Ann's Bay for
Kingston where he found employment as a compositor in the printery of P.A. Benjamin Limited. He was a master printer and foreman at Benjamin when, in November of 1907, he was elected the vice-president of the Kingston Union. Upon joining a strike by printers in late 1908 he was fired from his position. Having been blacklisted for his stance in the strike he later found work at the Government Printing Office. In 1909 his newspaper ''The Watchman'' began publication. It only lasted for three issues.
In 1910 Garvey left Jamaica and began traveling throughout the Central American region. He lived in
Costa Rica for several months, where he worked as a time-keeper on a banana plantation. He began work as editor for a daily newspaper entitled 'La Nacionale' in 1911. Later that year, he moved to
Colón,
Panama where he edited a tri-weekly before returning to Jamaica in 1912.
After years of working in the Caribbean, Garvey left Jamaica to spend 1912 and 1913 in
London. There he attended Birkbeck College, worked for the ''
African Times and Orient Review'', published by
Dusé Mohamed Ali, and sometimes spoke at
Hyde Park's
Speakers' Corner.
Founding of the UNIA-ACL
During his travels, Garvey had become convinced that uniting Blacks was the only way to improve their condition, and so he departed
England on
June 14,
1914 aboard the
S.S. Trent, reaching Jamaica on
July 15,
1914. Five days later the
Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and African Communities League (ACL) was formed.
Amy Ashwood, who would later be Garvey's first wife, was among the founders. As the group's first President-General, his goal was to "unite all people of African ancestry of the world to one great body to establish a country and absolute government of their own".
According to Garvey, the name of the organization was the result of a conversation he had with a
West Indian traveling to the
Caribbean with his
Basuto wife. During their discussion he "further learned of the horrors of native life in Africa". Following much reflection the following day and night on what he had learned "the vision and thought came" to him to "name the organization the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities (Imperial) League".
After corresponding with
Booker T. Washington, Garvey arrived in the U.S. aboard the
S.S. ''Tallac'' on
March 23,
1916, for a lecture tour and to raise funds for establishment of a school in Jamaica modeled after Washington's
Tuskegee Institute. Unfortunately, Washington had died in 1915 before Garvey reached the U.S., but he did visit Tuskegee and afterward, he visited a number of Black leaders. After moving to New York he found work in his usual trade as a printer by day, and at night he would speak on street corners, much like he did in London's Hyde Park. It was then that Garvey perceived a leadership vacuum among people of African ancestry, and so on
May 9,
1916, he held his first public lecture in
New York City at
St Mark's Church in-the-Bowery and undertook a 38-state speaking tour.
In May of 1917 he and thirteen others formed the first UNIA division outside Jamaica and began advancing ideas promoting social, political, and economic freedom for Blacks. On July 2, the
East St. Louis riots broke out. On July 8, Garvey delivered an address, entitled "The Conspiracy of the East St. Louis Riots," at Lafayette Hall in
Harlem. During the speech he declared that the riot was "one of the bloodiest outrages against mankind." By October, rancor amongst the ranks of the UNIA had begun to set in. A split occurred in the Harlem division with Garvey enlisted to become the head of the division; although he still technically held the same position in Jamaica.
Garvey next set about the business of developing a program to improve the conditions of those of African ancestry "at home and abroad" under UNIA auspices. On
August 17,
1918, publication of the widely distributed
Negro World newspaper began. Garvey worked for it as editor for free up until November 1920. By June of 1919 the membership of the organization had grown to over two million.
On
June 27,
1919, the
Black Star Line (named after the successful
White Star Line) of Delaware, was incorporated by the members of the UNIA with Garvey as President. By September it had obtained its first ship. Much fanfare surrounded the inspection of the S.S. ''Yarmouth'' and its rechristening as the S.S. ''
Frederick Douglass'' on
September 14,
1919. Such a rapid accomplishment garnered attention from many.
One person who noticed was
Edwin P. Kilroe, Assistant District Attorney in the District Attorney's office of the County of New York. Kilroe began an investigation into the activities of the UNIA without finding any evidence of wrongdoing or mismanagement. After being called to Kilroe's office numerous times without any resolution, Garvey wrote an editorial on Kilroe's activities for the Negro World. After having been arrested, and indicted for criminal libel in relation to the article, charges were dismissed when Garvey published a retraction.
While in his Harlem office at 56 West 156th Street on
October 14,
1919 Garvey received a visit from a man by the name of George Tyler. Tyler told him that Kilroe "had sent him" to get Garvey. Tyler then pulled a .38-calibre revolver and fired four shots, wounding Garvey in the right leg and scalp. Garvey was taken to the hospital and Tyler arrested. The next day Tyler apparently committed suicide by jumping from the third tier of Harlem jail while he was being taken to his arraignment.
By August 1920, the UNIA claimed 4 million members. That month the International Convention of the UNIA was held. With delegates from all over the world in attendance, over 25,000 people filled
Madison Square Garden on August 1 to hear Garvey speak.
Another venture of his was the
Negro Factories Corporation. His plan called for creating the infrastructure to manufacture every marketable commodity in every big U.S. industrial center, as well as those in Central America, West Indies, and Africa. Related endeavors included a grocery chain, restaurant, publishing house, and other businesses.
Convinced that Blacks should have a permanent homeland in Africa, Garvey sought to develop Liberia. "Our success educationally, industrially and politically is based upon the protection of a nation founded by ourselves. And the nation can be nowhere else but in Africa."
The
Liberia program, launched in 1920, was intended to build colleges, universities, industrial plants, and railroads as part of an
industrial base from which to operate. However, it was abandoned in the mid-1920s after much opposition from European powers with interests in Liberia. Interestingly, in response to suggestions that he wanted to take all Americans of
African ancestry back to Africa, he once proclaimed, "I have no desire to take all black people back to Africa; there are blacks who are no good here and will likewise be no good there."
Garvey has been credited with creating the biggest movement of people of African descent. At its zenith, the UNIA claimed over a million members. This movement that took place in the 1920s is said to have had more participation from people of African descent than the Civil Rights Movement. In essence the UNIA was the largest Pan-African movement ever.
Charged with mail fraud
Sometime around November of 1919 an investigation by the
Federal Bureau of Investigation under
J. Edgar Hoover was begun into the activities of Garvey and the UNIA. Towards this end the FBI hired James Edward Amos, Arthur Lowell Brent, Thomas Leon Jefferson,
James Wormley Jones, and Earl E. Titus as its first five African-American agents. Although initial efforts by the FBI were to find grounds upon which to deport Garvey as an undesirable alien, a charge of
mail fraud was brought against Garvey in connection with stock sales of the
Black Star Line after the
U.S. Post Office and the
Attorney General joined the investigation
[5].
The accusation centered on the fact that the
corporation had not yet purchased a ship with the name "
Phyllis Wheatley". Although one was pictured with that name emblazoned on its
bow on one of the company's stock brochures it had not actually been purchased by the BSL and still had the name
Orion. The prosecution produced as evidence a single empty envelope which it claimed contained the brochure. During the trial, a man by the name of Benny Dancy testified that he didn't remember what was in the envelope, although he regularly received brochures from the Black Star Line. Another witness for the prosecution, Schuyler Cargill, perjured himself after admitting
[6] to having been told to mention certain dates in his testimony by Chief Prosecutor
Maxwell S. Mattuck. Furthermore, he admitted that he could not remember the names of any coworkers in the office, including the timekeeper who punched employees time cards. Ultimately, he acknowledged being told to lie by Postal Inspector F.E. Shea
[7]. He said Shea told him to state that he mailed letters containing the purportedly fraudulent brochures. The undisputed truth is the Black Star Line did own and operate several ships over the course of its history and was in the process of negotiating for the disputed ship at the time the charges were brought.
Of the four Black Star Line officers charged in connection with the enterprise, only Garvey was found guilty of using the mail service to defraud. His supporters called the trial fraudulent. While there were serious accounting irregularities within the Black Star Line and the claims he used to sell Black Star Line stock could be considered misleading, Garvey's prosecution may have been politically motivated.
When the trial ended on
June 23,
1923 Garvey had been sentenced to five years in prison. He initially spent three months in the
Tombs Jail awaiting approval of bail. While on bail he continued to maintain his innocence, travel, speak and organize the UNIA. After numerous attempts at appeal were unsuccessful he was taken into custody and began serving his sentence at the
Atlanta Federal Penitentiary on
February 8,
1925 [8]. Two days later he penned his well known "First Message to the Negroes of the World From Atlanta Prison" wherein he makes his famous proclamation:
Look for me in the whirlwind or the storm, look for me all around you, for, with God's grace, I shall come and bring with me countless millions of black slaves who have died in America and the West Indies and the millions in Africa to aid you in the fight for Liberty, Freedom and Life.[9]
In the end, as Professor Judith Stein has stated, "his politics were on trial"
[10].
His sentence was eventually commuted by President
Calvin Coolidge. Since Garvey had been convicted of a felony and was not a
U.S. citizen, federal law required his immediate deportation. Upon his release in November 1927, Garvey was deported via
New Orleans to
Jamaica, where a large crowd met him at Orrett's Wharf in
Kingston. A huge procession and band converged on UNIA headquarters.
Controversies
W. E. B. Du Bois had a strong antagonism toward Garvey. This was due to Du Bois' expressed hostility to the
Black Star Line and other ideas of Garvey's. He began to suspect that Du Bois was prejudiced against him because he was a Caribbean with darker skin. By the late 1920s, his antagonism had turned to almost pathological disdain. To Du Bois, Garvey was "a lunatic or a traitor." Garvey called Du Bois "purely and simply a white man's nigger" and "a little Dutch, a little French, a little Negro ... a mulatto ... a monstrosity." This led to an acrimonious relationship between Garvey and the
NAACP. Garvey would later accuse Du Bois of paying conspirators to sabotage the Black Star Line and destroy his reputation. Du Bois was, nevertheless, a strong supporter of
Pan-Africanism.
[11][12]
It could be argued that Garvey was not necessarily a believer in
Black supremacy. He recognized the influence of the
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) on some Americans, and in early 1922, he went to
Atlanta,
Georgia, for a conference with
Edward Young Clarke, KKK imperial giant.
According to Garvey, "I regard the Klan, the Anglo-Saxon clubs and ''White American'' societies, as far as the Negro is concerned, as better friends of the race than all other groups of hypocritical whites put together. I like honesty and fair play. You may call me a Klansman if you will, but, potentially, every white man is a Klansman, as far as the Negro in competition with whites socially, economically and politically is concerned, and there is no use lying."
[13]
Later years
Garvey traveled to Geneva in 1928 to present the Petition of the Negro Race, which outlined the worldwide abuse of Africans, to the
League of Nations. In September 1929, he founded the
People's Political Party (PPP), Jamaica's first modern political party, which focused on
workers' rights,
education, and aid to the poor.
In 1929, Garvey was elected Counselor for the Allman Town Division of the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation (KSAC). He lost his seat, however, because of having to serve a prison sentence for
contempt of court, but in 1930, he was re-elected, unopposed, along with two other PPP candidates.
In April 1931, Garvey launched the Edelweiss Amusement Company, which he set up to help artists earn their livelihood from their craft. Several Jamaican entertainers —
Kidd Harold,
Ernest Cupidon,
Bim & Bam, and
Ranny Williams — went on to become popular after receiving initial exposure the company gave them.
In 1935, Garvey left Jamaica for
London, where he lived and worked until his death in 1940. During these last five years, he remained active and in touch with events in war-torn
Ethiopia (then
Abyssinia) and the West Indies. In 1938, he gave evidence before the West Indian Royal Commission on conditions there. Also in 1938, he set up the School of African Philosophy to train UNIA leaders. He continued to work on the magazine The Black Man.
In 1937, a group of his American supporters, called the
Peace Movement of Ethiopia, openly collaborated with
Mississippi Sen.
Theodore Bilbo in the promotion of a repatriation scheme introduced in the U.S. Congress as the Greater Liberia Act.
Death
On
June 10,
1940, Garvey died after a stroke, apparently after reading a mistaken, and negative,
obituary of himself in the ''
Chicago Defender''
[''Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind'', PBS documentary (transcript).]; see
list of premature obituaries. Because of travel conditions during
World War II, he was interred at
Kensal Green Cemetery in
London. After exhumation his remains were brought home to Jamaica. On
November 15,
1964, the government of Jamaica, having proclaimed him Jamaica's first national hero ceremoniously reentered him at a shrine in
National Heroes Park.
The
UNIA flag uses three colors: red, black and green.
Influence
Garvey's memory has been kept alive worldwide. Schools, colleges, highways, and buildings in Africa, Europe, the Caribbean, and the United States have been named in his honor. The UNIA
red, black, and green flag has been adopted as the Black Liberation Flag. Since 1980, Garvey's bust has been housed in the
Organization of American States' Hall of Heroes in
Washington, D.C.
Malcolm X's father Earl Little met Malcolm's mother Louise at a UNIA convention in
Montreal,
Canada. He also was the president of the UNIA division in
Omaha,
Nebraska and sold the Negro World newspaper while his wife Louise was a contributor to the Negro World.
Kwame Nkrumah named the national shipping line of
Ghana the Black Star Line in honor of Garvey and the UNIA. Nkrumah also named the national
soccer team the
Black Stars as well.
Burning Spear, a well-known Jamaican
reggae artist, has done much to keep his memory alive through song, including his
albums, ''Garvey's Ghost'' and ''
Marcus Garvey.''
African American novelist
Ralph Ellison used Garvey as the basis for Ras the Exhorter, the West Indian black nationalist demagogue in his award-winning
Invisible Man.
During a trip to Jamaica,
Martin Luther King and his wife
Coretta Scott King visited the shrine of Marcus Garvey in June of 1965 and laid a wreath. In a speech he told the audience that Garvey "was the first man of color to lead and develop a mass movement. He was the first man on a mass scale and level to give millions of Negroes a sense of dignity and destiny. And make the Negro feel he was somebody."
King was also the posthumous recipient of the first Marcus Garvey Prize for Human Rights on
December 10,
1968 issued by the Jamaican Government and presented to King's widow.
Hip Hop duo
Black Star (consisting of rappers
Mos Def and
Talib Kweli) took the name of
their debut album from the
Black Star Line.
Garvey and Rastafari
Rastafarians consider Garvey a
religious prophet, and sometimes even the
reincarnation of
John the Baptist. This is partly because of his frequent statements uttered in speeches throughout the 1920s, usually along the lines of "Look to Africa, when a black king shall be crowned for the day of deliverance is at hand!"
His beliefs deeply influenced the Rastafari, who took his statements as a prophecy of the crowning of
Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. Early Rastas were associated with his
Back-to-Africa movement in Jamaica. This early Rastafari movement was also influenced by a separate, proto-Rasta movement known as the
Afro-Athlican Church that was outlined in a religious text known as the
Holy Piby — where Garvey was proclaimed to be a prophet as well. Thus, the Rastafari movement can be seen as an offshoot of Garveyite philosophy. As his beliefs have greatly influenced Rastafari, he is often mentioned in
reggae music, including that of
Burning Spear.
Critical of Haile Selassie I in the wake of the invasion of
Ethiopia before
World War II, Garvey himself never identified with the Rastafari movement, and was, in fact, raised as a
Methodist who went on to become a
Roman Catholic.
Pop culture references
★ There are an enormous number of
reggae references to Marcus Garvey including Jamaican harmony trio
The Mighty Diamonds wrote a reggae song called "Them Never Love Poor Marcus", referring to Garvey. They also refer to him in their song "I Need A Roof".
★
Bob Marley, one of the most famous Rastafari believers, refers to Marcus Garvey in his song "So much things to say right now", saying, "I'll never forget no way: they sold Marcus Garvey for rights".
★
Burning Spear released an album titled Marcus Garvey in 1975, with most of the songs mentioning Garvey, at least. Throughout Burning Spear's career Marcus Garvey is a major influence on nearly every song.
★
Culture wrote a song about Marcus Garvey's "prophecy" on leaving the Spanish Town prison entitled "Two Sevens Clash".
★
Big Youth have a song entitled "Marcus Garvey".
★
The Gladiators, a reggae band, often sing of Marcus Garvey. For example their song "Marcus Garvey Time."
★ The American Progressive hip hop group
Arrested Development, in their epic song "Revolution" mentions Marcus Garvey near the end of the song.
★ Rapper
Nasir Jones (AKA.
Nas) made reference to Marcus Garvey in his debut album
Illmatic. In "Halftime" (song track [5])
Nas says, "And in the darkness/ I'm heartless/ like when the narcs hit/ word to Marcus Garvey".
★ The American rapper
Ludacris, in his popular video "Pimpin All Over The World", is wearing a T-Shirt with the legend: "A people without the knowledge of their past history, origin and culture is like a tree without roots," a quote attributed to Marcus Garvey.
★ The Haitian-American rapper
Wyclef Jean, in his appearance on
Chappelle's Show, performed his song "If I Was President", that references Garvey. "Tell the children the truth, the truth ... tell em about Marcus Garvey ..."
★ Referenced in Ralph Ellison's "Invisible Man" on page 272 of the Vintage printing.
★ On the
HBO drama ''
The Wire'',
African American mayoral candidate
Clarence Royce uses Marcus Garvey posters in his campaign to win votes in majority Black
Baltimore, Maryland. Royce is then accused by
State Delegate Watkins of hiding behind the posters to win votes.
★ In
William Gibson's book
Neuromancer, Marcus Garvey is the name of the tug which delivers the protagonists to the scene of the climax.
★ In Damian Marley's song Confrontation Marcus Garvey can be heard talking about equality.
★ In the intro to
The Orb's song
Towers of Dub a prank caller,
Victor Lewis-Smith, phones the London Weekend Television security desk and leaves a message for
Haile Selassie saying that he should meet Marcus Garvey in
Babylon.
★
Dead Prez refer to Marcus Garvey in most of their songs and live by his Red, Black and Green philosophy
★ The ska band
Hepcat has a song entitled "Marcus Garvey" on their album "Scientific".
★ In the
Wu-Tang Clan track 'I Can't Go To Sleep', the
RZA states the following: 'They... Exported Marcus/ Garvey 'cause he tried to spark us/ With the knowledge of ourselves, and our forefathers'.
★ Marcus Garvey appeared on the AP United States History exam on May 11th, 2007 on the multiple choice section. The question incorrectly labeled Garvey as the leader of the Black Power movement to help Blacks economically. The question will likely be removed from scoring.
★ In ''
The Autobiography of Malcolm X,'' his name is stated as "Marcus Aurelius Garvey," referencing Roman Emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius.
★ The band
Piebald (band) has a song entitled "If Marcus Garvey Dies, Then Marcus Garvey Lives" on their album "If It Weren't For Venetian Blinds, It Would Be Curtains For All Of Us."
★
Sinead O'Connor's reggae influenced 2005 album "
Throw Down Your Arms" opens with a cover of
Burning Spear's song "Marcus Garvey".
★
Zacheous Jackson Conscious message reggae music singer/songwriter refers to Marcus Garvey in his songs "Garvey Garvey" and "The Conspiracy" , which highlight the work of Marcus Mosiah Garvey and the conspiracy against him, and Zacheous also mentions Garvey in another of his songs called "Too Much A Wi".
Memorials to Garvey
★ Statue on the grounds of St. Ann's Bay Parish Library.
★ Secondary school in his name in St. Ann.
★ Major highway in his name in Kingston.
★ Bust in Apex Park in Kingston.
★ Likeness on the Jamaican 50 cent coin and 20 dollar coin.
★ Building in his name housing the Jamaican Ministry of Foreign Affairs in New Kingston.
★ The remains of his body were brought from England and buried in National Heroes Park at Heroes Circle, Jamaica.
★ Marcus Garvey statue at National Heroes Park in Kingston, JA.
★ Park in his name and a
New York Public Library branch dedicated to him in
New York City's
Harlem.
★ Major street in his name in the historically
Black Brooklyn neighbourhood of
Bedford Stuyvesant in the
USA
★ The
Universal Hip Hop Parade held annually in
Brooklyn on the Saturday before his birthday to carry on his use of
popular culture as a tool of empowerment and to encourage the growth of
Black institutions.
★ Major street in his name in
Nairobi,
Kenya.
★ Small park in his name in Hammersmith,
London, UK.
★ Marcus Garvey Recycling and Community Centres in
Lenton,
Nottingham, UK.
★ Park in his name in the Tenderloin District of San Francisco, California.
★ Marcus Garvey Library inside the
Tottenham Green Leisure Centre building in North London, UK.
★ Marcus Garvey Cultural Center, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado.
★ Secondary school in
Trenton, New Jersey
★ Community Center and Senior Housing Community in the Roxbury neighborhood of
Boston,
Massachusetts
★ Marcus Garvey school. A K through 8 grade private school in
Los Angeles, California
★ Marcus Garvey Road in Brixton, London.
★ Students at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, started the Marcus Garvey Movement which advocates Garvey's Pan-Africanist thoughts.
★ Marcus Garvey school. a Pre-K through 8 grade public magnet in math and science in
Chicago, Illinios
Quotes
★ "Up, you mighty race, accomplish what you will."
★ "Whatsoever things common to man, that man has done, man can do."
★ "One God! One aim! One destiny!"
★ "Africa for the Africans ... At home and abroad!"
★ "We Negroes believe in the God of Ethiopia, the everlasting God -- God the Son, God the Holy Ghost, the one God of all ages. That is the God in whom we believe, but we shall worship him through the spectacles of Ethiopia."
★ "A people without the knowledge of their past history, origin and culture is like a tree without roots."
★ "Look for me in the whirlwind or the storm."
★ "A reading man and woman is a ready man and woman, but a writing man and woman is exact."
★ "There shall be no solution to this race problem until you, yourselves, strike the blow for liberty."
★ "If you have no confidence in self, you are twice defeated in the race of life. With confidence, you have won before you have started."
★ "Chance has never yet satisfied the hope of a suffering people."
★ "Do not remove the kinks from your hair--remove them from your brain."
See also
★
African American literature
★
Black separatism
★
Black Nationalism
References
1. UNIA-ACL website, ''The "Back to Africa" Myth''. [1]. Published July 14, 2005. Accessed April 1, 2007
2. UNIA-ACL website, ''The "Back to Africa" Myth''. [2]. Published July 14, 2005. Accessed April 1, 2007
3. UNIA-ACL website, ''The "Back to Africa" Myth''. [3]. Published July 14, 2005. Accessed April 1, 2007
4. UNIA ACL Website ''Historical Facts about Marcus Garvey and the UNIA'' [4]. Published January 28, 2005 BY THE UNIA-ACL. Accessed 2007-04-01.
5. Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans, [5] , "FEDERAL SURVEILLANCE OF AFRO-AMERICANS (1917-1925): The First WorldWar, the RedScare, and the GarveyMovement", "Last accessed 5/10/2007".
6. http://www.marcusgarvey.com/wmview.php?ArtID=404&page=2
7. http://www.marcusgarvey.com/wmview.php?ArtID=404&page=3
8. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/sfeature/sf_forum_13.html
9. "First Message to the Negroes of the World from Atlanta Prison",http://www.unia-acl.org/archive/whrlwind.htm,
10. "New York Times", "Pardon Marcus Garvey by Judith Stein", "November 5, 1983, Page 5
11. American Experience Marcus Garvey - People & Events ''W.E.B. Du Bois, 1868-1963'' [6] Accessed April 1, 2007
12. [The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers Project, UCLA, ''American Series Introduction Volume I: 1826--August 1919'', [7] Accessed April 1, 2007.
13. Spartucus Educational website, ''Ku Klux Klan''. [8] Accessed April 1, 2007.
External links
★
Garvey's Legacy in Context: Colourism, Black Movements and African Nationalism
★
Garvey: Full Speech and Video".
★
"Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind." PBS documentary film.
★
Marcus Garvey web site.
★
UNIA web site.
★
Hear Marcus Garvey speak i. 4:45 minutes. Archived on Netherlands
Rastafarian web siteretrieved
May 19,
2005.
★
Hear Marcus Garvey Speak. Another longer voice recording about African unity, 23:30 long.
★
National Heroes
★
The Negro's Greatest Enemy -- autobiography published in Current History during September 1923
Bibliography
''Works by Marcus Garvey''
★ ''The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey''. Edited by
Amy Jacques Garvey. 412 pages. Majority Press; Centennial edition,
November 1,
1986. ISBN 0-912469-24-2. Avery edition. ISBN 0-405-01873-8.
★ ''Message to the People: The Course of
African Philosophy by Marcus Garvey.'' Edited by Tony Martin. Foreword by Hon. Charles L. James, president- general,
Universal Negro Improvement Association. 212 pages. Majority Press,
March 1,
1986. ISBN 0-912469-19-6.
★ ''The Poetical Works of Marcus Garvey.'' Compiled and edited by Tony Martin. 123 pages. Majority Press,
June 1,
1983. ISBN 0-912469-02-1.
★ Hill, Robert A., editor. ''The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers.'' Vols. I-VII, IX. University of California Press, ca. 1983- (ongoing). 1146 pages. University of California Press,
May 1,
1991. ISBN 0-520-07208-1.
★ Hill, Robert A., editor. ''The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: Africa for the Africans 1921-1922.'' 740 pages. University of California Press,
February 1,
1996. ISBN 0-520-20211-2.
''Books''
★ Burkett, Randall K. ''Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion.'' Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press and American Theological Library Association, 1978.
★ Campbell, Horace. ''Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney.'' Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1987.
★ Clarke, John Henrik, editor. ''Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa.'' With assistance from Amy Jacques Garvey. New York: Vintage Books, 1974.
★ Cronon, Edmund David. ''Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association.''
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1955, reprinted 1969.
★ Garvey, Amy Jacques, ''Garvey and
Garveyism.'' London: Collier-MacMillan, 1963, 1968.
★ Hill, Robert A., editor. ''Marcus Garvey, Life and Lessons: A Centennial Companion to the Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
★ —. ''The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers''. Vols. I-VII, IX. University of California Press, ca. 1983- (ongoing).
★ James, Winston. ''Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America.'' London: Verso, 1998.
★ Kornweibel Jr., Theodore. ''Seeing Red: Federal Campaigns Against Black Militancy 1919-1925.'' Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998.
★ Lemelle, Sidney, and Robin D. G. Kelley. ''Imagining Home: Class, Culture, and Nationalism in the African Diaspora.'' London: Verso, 1994.
★ Lewis, Rupert. ''Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion''. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1988.
★ Lewis, Rupert, and Bryan, Patrick, eds. ''Garvey: His Work and Impact.'' Mona, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1988.
★ Lewis, Rupert, and Maureen Warner-Lewis. ''Garvey: Africa, Europe, The Americas''. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1986, 1994.
★ Manoedi, M. Korete. ''Garvey and Africa.'' New York: New York Age Press, 1922.
★ Martin, Tony. ''Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggle of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association.'' Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976.
★ —. ''Literary Garveyism: Garvey, Black Arts, and the Harlem Renaissance.'' Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983.
★ —. ''African Fundamentalism: A Literary and Cultural Anthology of Garvey's Harlem Renaissance.'' Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983, 1991.
★ —. ''Marcus Garvey: Hero.'' Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983.
★ —. ''The Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond.'' Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983.
★ —. ''The Poetical Works of Marcus Garvey.'' Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983.
★ Smith-Irvin, Jeannette. ''Marcus Garvey's Footsoldiers of the Universal Negro Improvement Association.'' Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1989.
★ Solomon, Mark. ''The Cry Was Unity: Communists and African-Americans, 1917-1936.'' Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998.
★ Stein, Judith. ''The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986.
★ Tolbert, Emory J. ''The UNIA and Black Los Angeles.'' Los Angeles: Center of Afro-American Studies, University of California, 1980.
★ Vincent, Theodore. ''Black Power and the Garvey Movement''. Berkeley, Calif.: Ramparts Press, 1971.
''Theses''
★ Taylor, Ula L. ''The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey''(unpublished dissertation).
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