'Myanmar' (
pronounced [1]), officially the 'Union of Myanmar' (Burmese: ) is the largest country by geographical area in mainland
Southeast Asia. It is also known as 'Burma'. As the "Union of Burma," Myanmar achieved independence from the
United Kingdom on
4 January 1948. It became the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" on
4 January 1974, before reverting to the "Union of Burma" on
23 September 1988. On
18 June 1989, the
State Law and Order Restoration Council adopted the name "Union of Myanmar."
Burma is bordered by the
People's Republic of China on the north,
Laos on the east,
Thailand on the southeast,
Bangladesh on the west, and
India on the northwest, with the
Andaman Sea to the south, and the
Bay of Bengal to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930
kilometres (1,199
mi), forms an uninterrupted
coastline.
Burma's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times. Its
political system remains under the tight control of the
State Peace and Development Council, the
military government led, since 1992, by Senior General
Than Shwe. The Burmese military has dominated government since General
Ne Win led a coup in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of
U Nu. Part of the
British Empire until 1948, Burma continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is based on
Theravada Buddhism intertwined with local elements.
Etymology
The name ''"Myanmar"'' is derived from the local short-form name ''Myanma Naingngandaw.''
[2] This name was used as early as the 12th century, but its etymology remains unclear.
In 1989, the
military junta officially changed the
English version of the country's name from ''Burma'' to ''Myanmar,'' along with changes to the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former
capital city from ''Rangoon'' to ''
Yangon.'' Note that the official name of the country in the
Burmese language, ''Myanma,'' did not change. Within the Burmese language, ''Myanma'' is the written, literary name of the country, while ''Bama'' or ''Bamar'' (from which "Burma" derives) is the oral, colloquial name. In spoken Burmese, the distinction is less clean than the English transliteration suggests.
The renaming proved to be politically controversial.
[3] Burmese opposition groups continue to use the name "Burma" since they do not recognize the legitimacy of the ruling military government nor its authority to rename the country. Some western governments, namely those of the United States, Australia, Ireland, and Britain, continue to use "Burma," while the
European Union uses "Burma/Myanmar" as an alternative.
[4] The United Nations uses "Myanmar."
Use of "Burma" and its adjective "Burmese" remains common in the United States and Britain. News organisations, such as the
BBC, ''
Wall Street Journal'' and ''
The Financial Times,'' still use these forms.
[5][6] CNN, ''
The Economist,'' and ''
The New York Times'' use "Myanmar" as the country name and "Burmese" as the adjective.
History
Main articles: History of Myanmar
Early history
The
Mon people people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid-900s BC were dominant in southern Myanmar.
[7] The
Pyu arrived later, in the 1st century BC, and established several city kingdoms which traded with
India and
China. The most powerful Pyu kingdom was
Sri Ksetra, which was subsequently abandoned in 656 AD. The Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid-800s were invaded by the
Nanzhao kingdom.
Bagan (1044-1287)
The
Burmans, or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day
Tibet sometime before the ninth century AD. By 849, they had established a small kingdom centered in
Bagan. But it was not until the reign of King
Anawratha (1044-1077) that the Bagan's influence expanded throughout much of present-day Myanmar, commonly called the First Burmese Empire. The Burmese script was first invented in the late 11th or early 12th century. In the late 1200s,
Mongols under
Kublai Khan invaded the Pagan Kingdom, and by 1287 sacked Bagan.
Small kingdoms (1287-1531)
The Mongols could not stay for long but the Bagan empire was irreparably broken up into several small states.
★ Burmanized
Shan kings re-established the Burman kingdom at
Ava, controlling much of central Myanmar. Burmese culture entered a
golden age.
★ The
Mons re-established themselves at
Bago (Pegu), controlling much of lower Myanmar. which became a major commercial and religious center.
★ The
Shans had several minor kingdoms in the Shan hills.
★ The
Rakhine (Arakanese) reestablished their own independent kingdom based in
Mrauk U in the west.
This period was characterized by constant warfare between Ava and Pegu, and to a lesser extent, Ava and the Shans. Ava could never reunify the country.
Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, which was capital of the
Pagan Kingdom.
Taungoo (1531-1752)
In 1527, the
Shans sacked Ava. Reinforced by the fleeing Burmans from Ava, the minor Burman city state of
Taungoo under its young, ambitious king
Tabinshwehti (1531-1551) defeated the more powerful Mon kingdom at
Bago, reunifying all of
Lower Myanmar by 1540. Tabinshwehti's successor King Bayinnaung (1551-1581) would go on to conquer
Upper Myanmar,
Manipur,
Shan,
Chiang Mai,
Ayutthaya and
Lan Xang kingdoms, bringing most of western South East Asia under his rule.
Bayinnaung's massive empire unraveled soon after his death in 1581.
Ayutthaya had driven out the Burmese by 1587 (and would even go on to take southern
Tanintharyi (Tenessarim) province). In 1599, the Taungoo kingdom's capital
Bago itself was sacked by invading
Rakhine forces aided by the Portugese mercenaries.
Regrouped Burmans under King
Anaukpetlun defeated the Portugese who had stayed in
Thanlyin (Syriam) in 1611, and managed to reestablish a smaller kingdom based in
Ava covering Upper Burma, Lower Burma and Shan states--but without
Rakhine in 1613. The kingdom experienced a slow and steady decline for next 100+ years. The Mons in Lower successfully rebelled in 1747, and finally put an end to the House of Taungoo in 1752 when the Mon forces took
Ava.
Konbaung (1752-1885)
King
Alaungpaya (1752-1760) established the
Konbaung Dynasty in
Shwebo in resistance to advancing Mon forces in 1752.
[8] Alaungpaya defeated the Mons and reunified much of the country. He also founded the city of
Yangon in 1755. In 1767, King
Hsinbyushin (1763-1777) sacked
Ayutthya. The
Qing Dynasty of
China, trying to check the Burmese power, invaded four times from 1766 to 1769 without success. The Chinese invasions allowed the new
Siamese kingdom based in Bangkok to repel the Burmese out of
Siam by the late 1770s.
King
Bodawpaya (1782-1819) attempted but failed repeatedly to reconquer
Siam. But Bodawpaya did manage to retake the western kingdom of
Rakhine (Arakan), which had been largely independent since the fall of Bagan, in 1784. Bodawpaya also formally annexed
Manipur, a cumbersome protectorate, in 1813.
During the reign of King
Bagyidaw (1819-1837), Burmese general
Maha Bandula reoccupied
Manipur in 1819 and captured then independent kingdom of
Assam in 1819 (and again in 1821). The new conquests brought the Burmese adjacent to the British India. The British defeated the Burmese in the
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826). Burma had to cede
Assam,
Manipur,
Rakhine (Arakan) and
Tanintharyi (Tenessarim).
In 1852, King Bagan imprisoned some British officials for murder, which the British used as an excuse for the
Second Anglo-Burmese War. This time, the British invaded the remaining coastal provinces —
Ayeyarwady,
Yangon and
Bago, naming the territories as
Lower Burma. Burma was only
Upper Burma, now.
King
Mindon (1852-1878) skilfully navigated the growing threats posed by the competing interests of Britain and France. In the process,
Mindon had to renounce
Kayah or (Karenni) states in 1875.
Mindon founded
Mandalay in 1855 and made his capital. His successor, King
Thibaw (1878-1885), was not effective. In 1885, the British, alarmed by the French conquest of neighboring
Laos, was determined to grab
Upper Burma. The
Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) lasted mere one month insofar as capturing the capital
Mandalay was concerned. The Burmese royal family were exiled to India, first to
Madras and then to
Ratnagiri.
Upper Burma reunited with
Lower Burma was administered as a single province within
British India despite Burma's independent history and traditions.
Colonial era (1886-1948)
The capital may have been captured and the king exiled to India, but Burma had not been defeated and occupation unleashed widespread resistance that proved very hard to control, let alone crush. Not until 1896 was the war finally over, making the
Third Anglo-Burmese War the largest and longest of the "small wars" fought by the British during the 19th century.
To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in Indians and Chinese who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day
Yangon and
Mandalay have large ethnic Indian populations. Railroads and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons including the infamous Insein Jail, then as now used for political prisoners. Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralyzed Yangon on occasion all the way until the
1930s.
[9] Much of the discontent was caused by a perceived disrespect for Burman culture and traditions, for example, what the British termed the Shoe Question: the colonisers’ refusal to remove their shoes upon entering Buddhist temples or other holy places. In October 1919, Eindawya Pagoda in Mandalay was the scene of violence when tempers flared after scandalised Buddhist monks attempted to physically expel a group of shoe-wearing British visitors. The leader of the monks was later sentenced to life imprisonment for attempted murder. Such incidents inspired the Burmese resistance to use
Buddhism as a rallying point for their cause. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement, and many died while protesting. One monk-turned-martyr was U Wisara, who died in prison after a 163-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.
[10] Kipling's poem '
Mandalay' is now all that most people in Britain remember of Myanmar's difficult and often brutal colonisation.
On
1 April 1937, Myanmar became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Myanmar in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the
Thirty Comrades, commanded by
Aung San, founded the
Burma Independence Army.
[11] The Thirty Comrades received training in
Japan.
During
World War II, Burma became a major frontline in the
Southeast Asian Theatre. The British administration collapsed ahead of the advancing Japanese troops, jails and asylums were opened and Rangoon was deserted except for the many
Anglo-Burmese and Indians who remained at their posts. A stream of some 300,000 refugees fled across the jungles into India; known as '
The Trek', all but 30,000 of those 300,000 arrived in India. Initially the Japanese-led
Burma Campaign succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Myanmar, but the British counter-attacked. By July 1945, the British had retaken the country. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese also served in the British Burma Army. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British occupation. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the
Chindits under General
Orde Wingate from 1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created
American-Kachin Rangers who also fought for the occupiers. Many other Burmese fought with the invading British
Special Operations Executive. The
Burma Independence Army under the command of
Aung San and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.
Post-Independence democracy (1948-1962)
On
4 January 1948, the nation became an independent
republic, named the ''Union of Burma,'' with
Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and
U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British occupied territories, it did not become a member of the
Commonwealth. A
bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a
Chamber of Deputies and a
Chamber of Nationalities.
[12] The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of
Lower Burma and
Upper Burma, and the
Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the
British.
[13]
In 1961,
U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected
Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.
[14] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young
Aung San Suu Kyi.
Military rule (1962-present)
Democratic rule ended in 1962 when General
Ne Win led a military
coup d'état. He ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the rubric of the
Burmese Way to Socialism. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of
U Thant.
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the
8888 Uprising. In response,
General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the
State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared
martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalized plans for People's Assembly elections on
31 May 1989.
[15]
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years. The
National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of
Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 489 seats, but the election results were annulled by SLORC, which refused to step down.
[16] SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the
English language in 1989. Led by
Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new
constitution through the National Convention, which began
9 January 1993. To date, this military-organized National Convention has not produced a new constitution despite well over ten years of operation.
[17] In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the
State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).
On
23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the
NLD, have been absent or excluded, and little progress has been made.
17 On
27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from
Yangon to a site near
Pyinmana, officially named it
Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings."
[18] In September of 2006, the U.S. led effort to include Burma on the
United Nations Security Council Agenda finally passed allowing the U.N.S.C. to discuss officially how it will deal with the human rights situation in Burma.
[19] In January of 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft U.N. Security Council resolution that would have urged Burma to ease repression and release political prisoners.
[20] In November of 2006, the
International Labor Organization announced it will be seeking charges against Myanmar over the continuous forced labour of its citizens by the military at the
International Court of Justice.
[21]
List of historical capitals of Myanmar
:
★
Amarapura
:
★
Ava
:
★
Bagan
:
★
Bago
:
★
Mandalay
:
★
Mrauk U
:
★
Naypyidaw
:
★
Sagaing
:
★
Shwebo
:
★
Thaton
:
★
Yangon
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Myanmar
The Union of Myanmar is governed by a
military regime. The current Head of State is
Senior General Than Shwe, who holds the posts of "Chairman of the
State Peace and Development Council" and "Commander in Chief of the Defense Services." General
Khin Nyunt was
prime minister until
19 October 2004, when he was replaced by
General Soe Win, after the purge of
Military Intelligence sections within
Myanmar Armed Forces . The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.
[22]
Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the
National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB), a
government-in-exile since December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy.
[23] Dr.
Sein Win, a first cousin of
Aung San Suu Kyi, has held the position of prime minister of the NCGUB since its inception. The NCGUB has been outlawed by the military government.
Major political parties in Myanmar are the
National League for Democracy and the
Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, although their activities are heavily regulated and suppressed by the military government. Many other parties, often representing ethnic minorities, exist. The military government allows little room for political organizations and has outlawed many political parties and underground student organizations. The military supported the
National Unity Party in the 1990 elections and, more recently, an organization named the
Union Solidarity and Development Association.
[24]
Several human rights organizations, including
Human Rights Watch and
Amnesty International, have reported on human rights abuses by the military government.
[25] They have claimed that there is no independent
judiciary in Myanmar. The military government restricts Internet access through software-based censorship that limits the material citizens can access on-line.
[26][27] Forced labour,
human trafficking, and
child labour are common.
[28] The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including systematic rapes and taking of sex slaves as porters for the military. A strong women's pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chang Mai. The Women's League of Burma is the leading women's civil society organization, an umbrella organization uniting many smaller women's ethnic organizations into a political force working for democracy and women's human rights in Burma. There is a growing international movement to defend women's human rights issues.
[29]
In 1988, the Burmese army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On
8 August 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as
8888 Uprising and imposed martial law. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently annulled by
Senior General Saw Maung's government. The
National League for Democracy, led by
Aung San Suu Kyi, won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. The military-backed
National Unity Party won less than 2% of the seats. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international recognition as an activist for the return of democratic rule, winning the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. The ruling regime has repeatedly placed her under
house arrest. Despite a direct appeal by former U.N Secretary General
Kofi Annan to
Senior General Than Shwe and pressure by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (
ASEAN), the Burmese military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on
27 May 2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons on the grounds of protecting peace and stability in the country.
[30][31] The junta faces increasing pressure from the
United States and
Great Britain. Myanmar's situation was referred to the
UN Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. In September 2006, ten of the United Nations Security Council's 15 members voted to place Burma on the council's formal agenda.
[32] On
Independence Day,
4 January 2007, the government released 40
political prisoners, under a general amnesty, in which 2,831 prisoners were released.
[33] On 8 January 2007, UN Secretary-General
Ban Ki-moon urged the national government to free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi.
[34] Three days later, on
11 January, five additional prisoners were released from prison.
ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Myanmar's government. It has formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack of democratisation in Myanmar.
[35] Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers such as
India,
Russia, and, in particular,
China.
[36][37]
In January 2007, the
United States submitted a draft Security Council resolution, backed by the
United Kingdom, in an effort to end political repression and human rights violations to the
United Nations Security Council. Belgium, France, Ghana, Italy, Panama, Peru, Slovakia, the UK and the US voted in favor of the resolution, while China and Russia vetoed, and South Africa voted against the resolution. Indonesia, Qatar, and the Republic of the Congo abstained. Chinese Ambassador
Wang Guangya stated that domestic problems in Myanmar were largely internal affairs, while Russian Ambassador
Vitaly Churkin said that the issues would be better handled by other UN organs, such as the
Human Rights Council and humanitarian agencies, rather than the Security Council.
[38] The Indonesian Ambassador, who abstained from the vote, deplored the situation in Myanmar, but said that ASEAN, did not believe the problems in Myanmar were threats to security and peace in the region.
[39]
In the annual
ASEAN Summit in January 2007, held in
Cebu,
the Philippines, member countries failed to find common ground on the issue of Myanmar's lack of political reform.
[40] During the summit, ASEAN foreign ministers asked Myanmar to make greater progress on its roadmap toward democracy and national reconciliation.
[41] Some member countries contend that Myanmar's human rights issues were domestic affairs of Myanmar, while others contend that Myanmar's poor human rights record is an international issue.
According to
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters (HRDP), on April 18, 2007, several of its members (Myint Aye, Maung Maung Lay, Tin Maung Oo and Yin Kyi) were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local official, U Nyunt Oo, and beaten up. Due to the attack, Myint Hlaing and Maung Maung Lay were badly injured and are now hospitalized. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities and vows to take legal action.
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters was formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Myanmar about their
human rights.
Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Myanmar,
Military of Myanmar
Myanmar's
foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed a ban on new investments by US firms, an import ban, and an arms embargo on Myanmar, as well as frozen military assets in the United States because of the military regime's ongoing human rights abuses, the ongoing detention of Nobel Peace Prize recipient
Aung San Suu Kyi, and refusal to honor the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election.
[42] Similarly, the
European Union has placed sanctions on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of
humanitarian aid.
[43] U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in
natural resource extraction. Myanmar has close relations with neighboring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. The French oil company
Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the
European Union's sanctions on Myanmar. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and its American partner
Chevron with aid and implementation by the
Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by
Chevron,
Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount.
[44] There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.
[45][46]
Myanmar's armed forces is known as the
Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000.
The Tatmadaw comprises
the Army,
the Navy, and
the Air Force. Myanmar
ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service.
The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held by
military officers. Although official figures for Burmese military spending are not available, the
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, in its annual rankings, ranked Myanmar in the top 15 military spenders in the world.
[47] The country imports most of its weapons from
Russia,
Ukraine,
China and
India.
[48]
Myanmar is building a research
nuclear reactor near May Myo (Pyin Oo Lwin) with help from Russia. Myanmar is one of the signatories of nuclear
non-proliferation pact since 1992 and IAEA since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system.
ASEAN will not defend Myanmar at any international forum following the military regime's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary
Ahmad Shabery Cheek said Malaysia and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Myanmar if the country was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it was bombarded at any international forum," he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from Opposition Leader
Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and ASEAN with the Burmese military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Myanmar and support efforts to bring the situation in Myanmar to the
UN Security Council's attention.
[49]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Subdivisions of Myanmar
The 14 states and divisions of Myanmar.
Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions.
[50] Divisions (
Tain.png
) are predominantly
Bamar. States (
Pyinè.png
), in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into
townships,
wards, and
villages. Major cities are divided into districts called townships.
Divisions
★
Ayeyarwady Division
★
Bago Division
★
Magway Division
★
Mandalay Division
★
Sagaing Division
★
Tanintharyi Division
★
Yangon Division
States
★
Chin State
★
Kachin State
★
Kayin (Karen) State
★
Kayah (Karenni) State
★
Mon State
★
Rakhine (Arakan) State
★
Shan State
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Myanmar
Myanmar, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970
sq mi), is the largest country in mainland
Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world (after
Zambia). It is somewhat smaller than the US state of
Texas and slightly larger than
Afghanistan.
Myanmar is located between
Chittagong Division of
Bangladesh and
Assam,
Nagaland and
Manipur of
India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with
Xizang and
Yunnan of
China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi).
[51] Myanmar is bounded by
Laos and
Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) contiguous coastline along the
Bay of Bengal and
Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter.
The
Ayeyarwady delta, which is approximately 50,400 km² in area, is largely used for rice cultivation.
[52]
In the north, the
Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China.
Hkakabo Razi, located in
Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.
[53] Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the
Himalayas.
[54] The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the
Ayeyarwady,
Thanlwin, and the
Sittang rivers.
The Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the
Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.
The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Much of Myanmar lies between the
Tropic of Cancer and the
Equator. Myanmar lies in the
monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 millimetres (197 in) annually. Annual
rainfall in the
delta region is approximately 2,500 millimetres (98 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Myanmar, is less than 1,000 millimetres (39 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32 °C (90 °F).
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and
ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable
teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country.
[55] Other trees indigenous to the region include
rubber, acacia, bamboo,
ironwood, mangrove, coconut,
betel palm. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine, and various
rhododendrons cover much of the land.
The lands along the coast support all varieties of
tropical fruits. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is much more sparse and stunted.
Typical
jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards are common in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild buffaloes, wild boars, deer antelopes and
elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity, for use as work animals, particularly in the
lumber industry. Smaller
mammals are also numerous ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including
parrots, peafowl,
pheasants, crows, herons, and paddybirds. Among
reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of
freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.
[56]
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Myanmar
The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major foreign investment.
Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in Southeast Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. Myanmar's GDP grows only 2.9% annually — the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion.
Under British administration, Burma was one of the wealthiest countries in Southeast Asia. It was once the world's largest exporter of
rice. During British administration, Burma supplied
oil through the
Burmah Oil Company. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It produced 75% of the world's
teak and had a highly literate population.
The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.
After a parliamentary government was formed in
1948, Prime Minister
U Nu attempted to make Burma a
welfare state. His administration adopted the Two-Year Economic Development Plan, which was a failure.
[57] The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the
Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalize all industries, with the exception of agriculture. In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralizing economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy.
[58] Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated. They have recently been exploited by foreign
corporations and governments which have partnered with the local government to gain access to Myanmar's
natural resources.
Myanmar was designated a
least developed country in 1987.
[59] Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the
Tatmadaw. In recent years, both
China and
India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the
United States,
Canada, and the
European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from
China,
Singapore,
South Korea,
India, and
Thailand.
[60]
Economy today
Today, Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-
Thai border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the
Irrawaddy River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 1800s.
[61] Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities.
Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in
Yangon. Myanmar is also the world's second largest producer of
opium, accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of
illegal drugs, including
amphetamines.
[62] Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.
The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI), 52 modern
rice varieties were released in Myanmar between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas .
The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.
[63]
Inflation is a serious problem for the Burmese economy. In April 2007, the
National League for Democracy organized a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006," said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis."
[64]
Exchange rate
★ Official:
US$ 1.00 =~ 6 Ks
★
Black market: US$1.00 =~ 1370/Ks 07:37, 05 September 2007 (UTC)
Tourism
Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in Myanmar. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.
[65]
Tourism remains nevertheless a growing sector of the economy of Myanmar. Myanmar has diverse and varied tourist attractions and is served internationally by numerous airlines via direct flights. Domestic and foreign airlines also operate flights within the country. Cruise ships also dock at Yangon. Overland entry with a border pass is permitted at several border checkpoints. The government requires a valid passport with an entry visa for all tourists and business people. Both the tourist visa and business visa are valid for 28 days, renewable for an additional 14 days for tourism and 3 months for business. Seeing Myanmar through a personal tour guide is popular. Travellers can hire guides through travel agencies or contact them directly for private tours. Tourists from different parts of the world like Bangladesh, Thailand, UK, Australia, and Singapore visit Myanmar every year.
Humanitarian aid
In April 2007, the U.S.
Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma", outlined the specific efforts of the Burmese government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organizations, including restrictions on the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister
Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004. The
military junta passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalized these restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organizations coordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals.
United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable.
"The shameful behavior of Burma's military regime in tying the hand of humanitarian organizations is laid out in these pages for all to see, and it must come to an end", said U.S. Representative
Tom Lantos (D-CA). U.S. Representative
Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL) said that the report "underscores the need for democratic change in Burma, whose military regime arbitrarily arrests, tortures, rapes and executes its own people, ruthlessly persecutes ethnic minorities, and bizarrely builds itself a new capital city while failing to address the increasingly urgent challenges of refugee flows, illicit narcotics and human trafficking, and the spread of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases."
[66]
Recent economic protests
The Burmese military junta detained eight people on Sunday, April 22, 2007 who took part in a rare demonstration in a Yangon suburb amid a growing military crackdown on protesters. A group of about ten protesters carrying placards and chanting slogans staged the protest Sunday morning in Yangon's Thingangyun township, calling for lower prices and improved health, education and better utility services. The protest ended peacefully after about 70 minutes, but plainclothes police took away eight demonstrators as some 100 onlookers watched. The protesters carried placards with slogans such as "Down with consumer prices." Some of those detained were the same protesters who took part in a downtown Yangon protest on February 22, 2007. That protest was one of the first such demonstrations in recent years to challenge the junta's economic mismanagement rather than its legal right to rule. The protesters detained in the February rally had said they were released after signing an acknowledgment of police orders that they should not hold any future public demonstrations without first obtaining official permission.
[67]
The Burmese military government stated its intention to crack down on these human rights activists, according to an April 23, 2007, report in the country's official press. The announcement, that comprised a full page of the official newspaper, followed calls by human rights advocacy groups, including London-based
Amnesty International, for Burmese authorities to investigate recent violent attacks on rights activists in the country.
Two members of
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters, Maung Maung Lay, 37, and Myint Naing, 40, were hospitalized with head injuries following attacks by more than 50 people while the two were working in Hinthada township, Irrawaddy Division in mid-April. On Sunday, April 22, 2007, eight people were arrested by plainclothes police, members of the pro-junta Union Solidarity and Development Association, and the Pyithu Swan Arr Shin (a paramilitary group) while demonstrating peacefully in a Rangoon suburb. The eight protesters were calling for lower commodity prices, better health-care and improved utility services. Htin Kyaw, 44, one of the eight who also took part in an earlier demonstration in late February in downtown Rangoon, was beaten by a mob, according to sources at the scene of the protest.
Reports from Burmese opposition activists have emerged in recent weeks saying that Burmese authorities have directed the police and other government proxy groups to deal harshly with any sign of unrest in Rangoon. "This proves that there is no rule of law [in Burma]", the
88 Generation Students group said in a statement issued on April 23, 2007. "We seriously urge the authorities to prevent violence in the future and to guarantee the safety of every citizen."
[68]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Myanmar
A block of flats in downtown Yangon, facing
Bogyoke Market. Much of Yangon's urban population resides in densely-populated flats.
Myanmar has a population of about 40 to 55 million.
[69] Current population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983.
[70] No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Myanmar since
1931. There are over 600,000 registered
migrant workers from Myanmar in
Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers.
[71] Myanmar has a
population density of 75 persons per km², one of the lowest in
Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian-Burmese, Bangladeshi-Burmese and Burmese-Thai borders while several thousand are in
Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being
Rohingya,
Kayin, and
Karenni.
[72]
A girl from the
Padaung minority, one of the many ethnic groups that make up Myanmar's population.
Myanmar is ethnically diverse. The government recognises
135 distinct ethnic groups. While it is extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizable populations of Daic, Hmong-Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) peoples.
[73] The
Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.
10% of the population are
Shan.
The
Kayin make up 7% of the population.
The
Rakhine people constitute 4% of the population.
Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.
[74], who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the
Khmer.
comprise 2%.
The remainder are
Kachin,
Chin,
Anglo-Indians and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the Anglo-Burmese. Once forming a large and influential community, the
Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to
Australia and the UK. Today, it is estimated that only 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in Myanmar.
Myanmar is home to four major linguistic families:
Sino-Tibetan,
Austronesian,
Tai-Kadai, and
Indo-European.
[75] Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include
Burmese,
Karen,
Kachin,
Chin, and
Chinese. The primary Tai-Kadai language is
Shan.
Mon,
Palaung, and
Wa are the major
Austroasiatic languages spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages are
Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and
English.
[76]
According to the
UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official
literacy rate as of 2000 was 89.9%.
[77] Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. To qualify for
least developed country status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987.
[78] However, the U.S. Department of State estimates that functional literacy is at 30%.
5
Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly of the
Theravada sect intermingled with local beliefs. According to the military government, it is practised by 89% of the population, especially among the Bamar, Rakhine, Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Buddhism was officially acknowledged in the 1974 Constitution of Myanmar.
Islam, mainly of the
Sunni sect, is practiced by 4% of the population according to government census. However, according to the U.S State Department's 2006 international religious freedom report, non-Buddhists populations in the census were underestimated. Muslim leaders estimate that as much as 20% of the population may be Muslim.
[79] Muslims are divided amongst
Indians, Indo-Burmese,
Persians,
Arabs,
Panthays, and
Rohingyas. See
Islam in Burma.
Christianity is practised by 4% of the population,
[80] primarily among the Kachin, Chin and Kayin, and
Eurasians because of missionary work in their respective areas. About four-fifths of the country's Christians are
Protestants, in particular
Baptists of the
Myanmar Baptist Convention;
Roman Catholics make up the remainder.
The Muslim and Christian populations face religious persecution; The military government has revoked the citizenship of the Muslim Rohingya of Northern Arakan and attacked Christian ethnic minority populations. Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in Eastern Burma, where over 3000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.
[81] According to a recently leaked secret document, obtained by
Daily Telegraph, the regime seems to be intent on wiping out Christians from the country.
[83] Small segments of the population practice
Hinduism.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Myanmar
An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in
Mandalay is one of the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture.
A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the majority culture is primarily
Buddhist and
Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of
Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the ''
Yama Zatdaw,'' an adaptation of ''
Ramayana,'' has been influenced greatly by
Thai,
Mon, and
Indian versions of the play.
[84] Buddhism is practiced along with
nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.
[85][86]
In a traditional Burmese village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called
shinbyu is the most important
coming of age events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time.
[87] All boys of Buddhist family need to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. It is compulsory for all boys of Buddhism. The duration can be at least one week. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (
Nathwin.gif
) at the same time.
87 Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.
[88][89] Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.
British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of the
United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as
Yangon.
[90] Many ethnic minorities, particularly the
Karen in the southeast, and the
Kachin and
Chin who populate the north and northwest, practice
Christianity.
[91]
Ethnic groups in Myanmar
Main articles: Ethnic groups in Myanmar
There are 135 ethnic groups officially recognized by the government of Myanmar. They are
★ Kachin comprises 12 different ethnic groups.
(1) Kachin
(2) Taron
(3) Dalaung
(4) Jinghpaw
(5) Guari
(6) Hkahku
(7) Duleng
(8) Maru (Lawgore)
(9) Rawang
(10) Lashi (La Chit)
(11) Atsi
(12) Lisu
★ Kayah comprises 9 different ethnic groups.
(13) Kayah
(14) Zayein
(15) Ka-Yun (Padaung)
(16) Gheko
(17) Kebar
(18) Bre (Ka-Yaw)
(19) Manu Manaw
(20) Yin Talai
(21) Yin Baw
★ Kayin comprises 11 different ethnic groups.
(22) Kayin
(23) Kayinpyu
(24) Pa-Le-Chi
(25) Mon Kayin (Sarpyu)
(26) Sgaw
(27) Ta-Lay-Pwa
(28) Paku
(29) Bwe
(30) Monnepwa
(31) Monpwa
(32) Shu (Pwo)
★ Chin comprises 53 different ethnic groups.
(33) Chin
(34) Meithei (Kathe)
(35) Saline
(36) Ka-Lin-Kaw (Lushay)
(37) Khami
(38) Awa Khami
(39) Khawno
(40) Kaungso
(41) Kaung Saing Chin
(42) Kwelshin
(43) Kwangli (Sim)
(44) Gunte (Lyente)
(45) Gwete
(46) Ngorn
(47) Zizan
(48) Sentang
(49) Saing Zan
(50) Za-How
(51) Zotung
(52) Zo-Pe
(53) Zo
(54) Zahnyet (Zanniet)
(55) Tapong
(56) Tiddim (Hai-Dim)
(57) Tay-Zan
(58) Taishon
(59) Thado
(60) Torr
(61) Dim
(62) Dai (Yindu)
(63) Naga
(64) Tanghkul
(65) Malin
(66) Panun
(67) Magun
(68) Matu
(69) Miram (Mara)
(70) Mi-er
(71) Mgan
(72) Lushei (Lushay)
(73) Laymyo
(74) Lyente
(75) Lawhtu
(76) Lai
(77) Laizao
(78) Wakim (Mro)
(79) Haulngo
(80) Anu
(81) Anun
(82) Oo-Pu
(83) Lhinbu
(84) Asho (Plain)
(85) Rongtu
★ Mon comprises 1 ethnic groups.
(95) Mon
★ Bamar comprises 9 ethnic groups.
(86) Bamar
(87) Dawei
(88) Beik
(89) Yaw
(90) Yabein
(91) Kadu
(92) Ganan
(93) Salone
(94) Hpon
★ Rakhine comprises 7 ethnic groups.
(96) Rakhine
(97) Kamein
(98) Kwe Myi
(99) Daingnet
(100) Maramagyi
(101) Mro
(102) Thet
(
★
★
★
★
★ )Rohingya
★ Shan comprises 33 ethnic groups.
(103) Shan
(104) Yun (Lao)
(105) Kwi
(106) Pyin
(107) Yao
(108) Danaw
(109) Pale
(110) Eng
(111) Son
(112) Khamu
(113) Kaw (Akha-E-Kaw)
(114) Kokant
(115) Khamti Shan
(116) Hkun
(117) Taungyo
(118) Danu
(119) Palaung [Ta'ang]
(120) Man Zi
(121) Yin Kya
(122) Yin Net
(123) Shan Gale
(124) Shan Gyi
(125) Lahu
(126) Intha
(127) Eik-swair
(128) Pa-O
(129) Tai-Loi
(130) Tai-Lem
(131) Tai-Lon
(132) Tai-Lay
(133) Maingtha
(134) Maw Shan
(135) Wa
Language
Main articles: Languages of Myanmar MyanmarSar
Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is linguistically related to
Tibetan and to the
Chinese languages.
It is written in a
script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which comes from the
Mon script. The Burmese alphabet adapted the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 700s. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 1000s. The script is also used to write
Pali, the sacred language of
Theravada Buddhism. The Burmese script is also used to write several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and
diacritics for each language.
[92] The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of
honorifics and is age-oriented.
88 Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in
monasteries.
Secondary and
tertiary education take place at government schools.
Cuisine
Main articles: Cuisine of Myanmar
Burmese cuisine has been influenced by
Indian,
Chinese,
Thai, and other ethnic cuisines.
[93] The staple of Burmese cuisine is rice.
Noodles and
breads are also eaten. Burmese cuisine often utilises
shrimp, and
fish,
fish paste,
pork and
mutton.
, which is considered
taboo meat by many (particularly farmers), is the most commonly-avoided meat.
[94][95] Curries, such as
masala and
chilli are also used.
Mohinga, widely considered Myanmar's national dish, consists of curried
catfish broth with chickpea flour,
rice vermicelli and
fish sauce.
[96] Tropical fruits are often served as desserts. Major cities offer a wider variety of cuisines, including
Shan,
Chinese, and
Indian.
Music
Main articles: Music of Myanmar
Traditional
Burmese music is
melodious but without
harmony. Musical instruments include a
drum circle called ''pat waing,'' a
gong circle called ''kyi waing,'' a bamboo
xylophone called ''pattala,''
cymbals,
wind instruments such as the ''hnè'' or
oboe and
flute,
bamboo clappers, and
string instruments, which are often assembled in an
orchestra called ''saing waing.''
The
saung gauk, a boat-shaped string instrument consisting of
silk strings and
mica glass decorated along its neck has long been associated with the Burmese culture.
[97] Since the 1950s, westernized music has gained popularity, especially in large cities.
[98]
Dance
Main articles: Dances of Myanmar
'Duet Dance of U Shwe Yoe and Daw Moe'
U Shwe Yoe dance was U Ba Ga Lay's jolly joker dance sequence in one of the pioneer films of Burmese movie history. The dance is full of fun and joy. It has strong appeal amongst Burmese audiences and has been adopted as a dance for all celebrations.
With thick eye brows, long curved mustache, traditional Myanmar headdress (Gong Baung), long muffler around the neck, traditional Myanmar jacket (Tyke Pone), checked long sarong (Taung Shae Pasoe) and the small Pathein Umbralla. This became the trademark of U Shwe Yoe. Later the dancers easily copied his image by using special comical sunglass with artificial plastic nose and eyebrows.
Originally U Shwe Yoe was an individual dance performance, but over time the Daw Moe Dance was created and appended to the original version. U Shwe Yoe dances with his comic mustache and comic movements trying to woo the spinster Daw Moe. U Shwe Yoe and Daw Moe are the comic characters. They sing, they dance and they flirt, and make the spectators (audience) laugh.
[99][100]
See also
Notes
1. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, , , , Merriam-Webster, ,
2. Burma
3. Burma: The State of Myanmar, , David L., Steinberg, Georgetown University Press, 2002, ISBN
4. The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar
5. Background Note: Burma
6. Country Profile: myanmar
7. George Aaron Broadwell; Dept. of Anthropology; University at Albany, Albany, NY; accessed July 11, 2006
8. An Account of An Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava by Michael Symes,1795, , , , , ,
9. Trials in Burma, , Maurice, Collis, , 1945,
10. The World of Buddhism-Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture, , Heinz, Bechert, , 1984, ISBN 978-0871969828
11. Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy, , Gustaaf, Houtman, , 1999, ISBN 4-87297-748-3
12. The Constitution of the Union of Burma
13. Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, , Martin, Smith, Zed Books, 1991,
14. Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes? Aung Zaw
15. PYITHU HLUTTAW ELECTION LAW
16. 1990 MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY GENERAL ELECTIONS Khin Kyaw Han
17. The National Convention
18. Burma's new capital stages parade
19. UN Security Council to include Burma in its agenda
20. Russia, China Veto UN Resolution on Burma
21. ILO seeks to charge Myanmar junta with atrocities
22. Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments: Burma
23. The Birth Of The NCGUB
24. Crisis in Rangoon
25. Statement to the EU Development Committee Brad Adams
26. Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study
27. Burma bans Google and gmail
28. Myanmar: 10th anniversary of military repression
29. State of Terror report
30. Suu Kyi's Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest
31. Opposition Condemns Extension of Suu Kyi's Detention
32. UN Security Council Puts Burma on Agenda
33. Myanmar frees political prisoners
34. Ban Ki-moon calls on Myanmar to release all political prisoners
35. About Us
36. The Political Economy of China-Myanmar Relations: Strategic and Economic Dimensions
37. Burma and Superpower Rivalries in the Asia-Pacific
38. China and Russia veto US/UK-backed Security Council draft resolution on Myanmar
39. China, Russia veto UN Burma resolution
40. Southeast Asians Agree to Trade Zone Carlos H. Conde
41. ASEAN leaders weigh charter, wrangle over Myanmar Bill Tarrant
42. Burma Freedom and Democracy Act of 2003
43. The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar
44. Dilemma of dealing with Burma
45. How Best to Rid the World of Monsters
46. Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar
47. World Military Spending Topped US$1 trillion in 2004
48. [1]
49. Asean Will Not Defend Myanmar At International Fora — Ahmad Shabery
50. Administrative divisions
51. CIA Factbook
52. Economic Development of Myanmar, , Myat, Thein, , 2005, ISBN 9-8123-0211-5
53. Geographica's World Reference, , , , Random House Australia, 2000,
54. Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience, , Mya, Than, , 2005, ISBN 9-8123-0210-7
55. ''Myanmar's Forest Law and Rules'' BurmaLibrary.org Accessed July 15, 2006
56. "Flora and Fauna" at Myanmars.net
57. Political and Economic History of Myanmar (Burma) Economics
58. Planet geography, Stephen Codrington, , , Solid Star Press, 2005,
59. List of Least Developed Countries
60. So long US, hello China, India David Fullbrook
61. Challenges to Democratization in Burma
62. Myanmar Country Profile
63. A Colonial Economy In Crisis, , Ian, Brown, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-4153-0580-2
64. High Inflation Impeding Burma's Economy, Says NLD
65. The Politics of Tourism in Myanmar
66. Myanmar's rulers implement increasingly restrictive regulations for aid-giving agencies
67. Eight demonstrators detained for rare protest in military-ruled Myanmar
68. Burma's Junta Vows to Crack Down on Human Rights Activists
69. POPULATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION SECTION (PSIS)
70. Conflict and Displacement in Karenni: The Need for Considered Responses
71. Thailand: The Plight of Burmese Migrant Workers
72. Myanmar Refugees in South East Asia
73. Languages of Myanmar
74. Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians, Mya Than, , , , 1997, ISBN
75. Languages of Myanmar
76. Language Family Trees: Sino-Tibetan
77. Adult (15+) Literacy Rates and Illiterate Population by Region and Gender for
78. Burma: Prospects for a Democratic Future, , , , , 1998,
79. [3]
80. [4]
81. Internal Displacement in Eastern Burma 2006 Survey Thailand Burma Border Consortium
82. The Encounter of Missionary Christianity and Resurgent Buddhism in Post-colonial Myanmar Samuel Ngun Ling
83. Daily Telegraph: Burma 'orders Christians to be wiped out', January 21, 2007
84. Ramayana in Myanmar's heart
85. The Thirty-seven Nats-A Phase of Spirit-Worship prevailing in Burma, , R.C., Temple, , 1906,
86. The Worshipping of Nats — The Special Festival of Mount Popa
87. Flowers and Festivals Round the Burmese Year, Khin Myo Chit, , , , 1980,
88. Myam-ma, the home of the Burman, Tsaya, , , Thacker, Spink and Co., 1886,
89. The Burman — His Life and Notions, Shway Yoe, , , Norton Library 1963, 1882,
90. Burma maintains bygone buildings Steven Martin
91. The Silken East — A Record of Life and Travel in Burma, , V. C., Scott O'Connor, Kiscadale, 1904,
92. Proposal for encoding characters for Myanmar minority languages in the UCS
93. Food of Asia, , Foong Ling, Kong, Tuttle Publishing, 2002, ISBN
94. Burma, Saw Myat Yin, , , M. Cavendish, 1990,
95. The Myth of the Holy Cow, D. N. Jha, , , Verso, 2004,
96. Get a taste of Myanmar's national dish
97. Postcard of Saung Gauk (arched harp)
98. Myanmar worries as rappers upstage traditional xylophones
99. U Shwe Yoe's alias U Ba Ga Lay by Tin Soe. Al-Balag Journal, Published by Ko Min Lwin. In Burmese. Nov-Dec 2001. page 80,91&82 1
100. Ludu Daw Ah Mar, Shwe Yoe, Ba Galay — Artists of the same names in 2 volumes 1969
External links
★
Online Burma/Myanmar Library
★
[5]
★
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
★
Ministry of Communications, Posts, and Telegraphs
★
Ministry of Education
★
Ministry of Finance and Revenue
★
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
★
Ministry of Home Affairs
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