NAUVOO, ILLINOIS

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:''There is also a Nauvoo, Alabama, and a Nauvoo, Pennsylvania''
'Nauvoo' ('נָאווּ' "to be beautiful", Sephardi Hebrew 'Nåvu', Tiberian Hebrew 'Nâwû') is a city in Hancock County, Illinois, United States. Although the current population is just 1,063 (2000 census), and although it is difficult to reach over secondary highways in a remote corner of Illinois, Nauvoo attracts large numbers of visitors for its historic importance and its religious significance to members of both the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and other groups stemming from the same Mormon predecessor.
The city was founded by Joseph Smith, Jr., also the founder of the Latter-day Saints, and named by him from the traditional Sephardi Hebrew language with an anglicized spelling. The word comes from Isaiah 52:7, "How beautiful upon the mountains..."

Geography

Nauvoo is located at (40.544567, -91.380317). Situated on a wide bend in the Mississippi River, Nauvoo has most of the historic district in the lower flat lands (called the ''flats'') that are no more than a few feet above the water line. A prominent hill rises as one moves further east, at the apex of which stands the rebuilt Nauvoo Temple. Beginning with the temple, this elevated land (called the ''hill'') continues flat for many miles eastward.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 12.5 km² (4.8 mi²). 8.8 km² (3.4 mi²) of it is land and 3.7 km² (1.4 mi²) of it (29.88%) is water.

Government and Politics

Nauvoo City government consists of the Mayor, 6 Aldermen (2 from each ward), and City Treasurer. Additionally, there are appointed positions for City Clerk, Marshall, and Public Works positions.
As of 2007 the Mayor is John McCarty. The Aldermen are Gene Shurtz, Dave Koechle, Marcus Allen, Lee Ourth, Pam Knowles, and Kory Krause.
Separate from the city are the Nauvoo Fire Protection District and Nauvoo-Colusa School System. The Nauvoo FPD covers all of the city plus the surrounding 5 townships. Recently because of longer response times from county run ambulances the Nauvoo FPD has looked into establishing an ambulance service based out of Nauvoo which would be funded by a referendum that would transfer the ambulance tax money to the FPD that is currently being paid to the county. The referendum passed on April 17, 2007 with 74% of the vote.
The Nauvoo-Colusa school system runs the local elementary and combined middle/high school.

History

Commerce City

Hancock County was created in 1825 and organized in 1829, eleven years after Illinois became a state. In 1834, absentee investors A. White and J. B. Teas platted the town of Commerce on a bend of the Mississippi River in Hancock County, some fifty-three miles north of Quincy.^[1] By 1839, the town had failed to attract settlers and only a few frame houses had been built. The hopes of commercial success, based on the townsite being a portage past seasonal rapids, were dashed by the fact that the site was mostly a malarial swamp.

Nauvoo founded by the Latter-day Saints

In early 1839, Latter Day Saints were forced to flee Missouri as a result of the 1838 Mormon War and a legal proclamation known as the Extermination Order issued by Governor Lilburn W. Boggs. They regrouped in Quincy, whose non-Mormon citizens were shocked by the harsh treatment given them in Missouri and opened their homes to the refugees.

Joseph Smith, Jr.

Joseph Smith, Jr., president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, remained imprisoned in Missouri, but his chief counselor in the First Presidency, Sidney Rigdon, had been released and had rejoined the main body of the church in Quincy. Church member Israel Barlow fled Missouri and entered Illinois further north than the main group of Latter-day Saints. After learning from Isaac Galland, a land agent, that a large amount of land was for sale in the Commerce area, he contacted church leaders. Isaac Galland approached Rigdon in Quincy, Illinois and offered church leaders title to land in Hancock County and additional land across the river in the Iowa Territory's Lee County. Church leaders purchased this land as well as the mostly vacant Commerce plat in 1839, and Latter Day Saints began to settle the area immediately.^[1]
Weak from months of mistreatment, Smith and other leaders were permitted to escape from prison in Missouri and they rejoined the Latter Day Saints in Commerce by May of 1839. He renamed the town "Nauvoo", meaning "to be beautiful."^[3] Latter Day Saints often referred to Nauvoo as "the city beautiful," or "the city of Joseph."
Despite the name, the site was, at first, an undeveloped swamp. Epidemics of cholera, malaria and typhoid took their toll on the struggling Mormons until the swamp was drained.^[1] The smaller community of Commerce had few buildings so, in response to the immediate demand for housing, construction began promptly. Elements of Joseph Smith's generalized city plan, known as the "plat of Zion" (first introduced in 1833) were used in the street layout and lot allotments in Nauvoo. The community was characterized by wood frame homes with outbuildings, gardens, orchards and grazing plots on large lots laid out on an orderly grid system. In general, the buildings were detached single-family dwellings reminiscent of New England construction styles with commercial and industrial buildings in the same pattern.

Building up the city

Daguerreotype of the city in 1846 at the time of the Mormon exodus (LDS Church Archives).

In the spring of 1840, John C. Bennett, the Quarter Master General of the Illinois State Militia converted to Mormonism and became Joseph Smith's close friend and confidante. Bennett's experience with Illinois' government allowed him to help Smith craft a city charter for Nauvoo. Based closely on the Springfield, Illinois charter, the document gave the city a number of important powers, including the establishment of municipal court, a university, and an independent militia unit. At the time, the Illinois state government was closely balanced between members of the Democratic party and members of the Whig party. Both hoped to attract Mormon votes and both were quick to vote the charter into effect. After the charter was passed, Bennett was elected Nauvoo's first mayor and Smith made Bennett a member of the church's First Presidency. A militia unit, named the "Nauvoo Legion" was established, and Smith and Bennett were made its commanding generals.
The city grew quickly as Mormons gathered to the area, and at its height Nauvoo's population, although smaller than contemporary Chicago's, was as large as Quincy's or Springfield's.^[1] Many of the new converts came from the British Isles, as a result of a successful mission established there.^[1] The Latter Day Saints published two newspapers in the city, the religious and church-owned ''Times and Seasons'' and the secular and independently-owned ''Wasp'' (later replaced by the ''Nauvoo Neighbor''). Although it mostly existed on paper, a University of Nauvoo was established, with Bennett as its chancellor.
On April 6, 1841, the Nauvoo Legion drilled in a great parade to honor the laying of the cornerstone for a new temple and Sidney Rigdon gave the dedicatory speech. The foundation of the Nauvoo Temple was 83 ft (25 m) by 128 ft (39 m) and, when finished, its steeple rose to a height of over 100 ft (30 m). Church elder Alpheus Cutler was put in charge of the construction of the impressive stone edifice. Another church committee began construction of a large hotel on the city's Water Street, to be called the "Nauvoo House." John D. Lee was put in charge of constructing a meeting hall for the quorums of the Seventies.
In October of 1841, a Masonic Lodge was established in Nauvoo. George Miller, one of the church's bishops, was made its "Worshipful Master" or leader. The lodge admitted far more members than was normal Masonic practice and quickly elevated church leaders to high roles.

Developments in the Church

At the time of Nauvoo's foundation, the church was led by a First Presidency, consisting of a Prophet and two Counselors. The Presiding High Council (known as the Nauvoo High Council), led by Nauvoo Stake President William Marks was next in administrative authority, overseeing the church's legislative and judicial affairs. The church's "Travelling High Council" (or Quorum of the Twelve) led by President Brigham Young oversaw the church's missionary activities.
Joseph Smith, Jr. introduced and expanded a number of distinct practices while the Latter Day Saint church was headquartered in Nauvoo. These included Baptism for the dead, Rebaptism, the Nauvoo-era Endowment, and the ordinance of the Second Anointing. In addition, he created a new inner council of the church — containing both men and women — called the Anointed Quorum.
Although not publicly acknowledged, Smith had been practicing plural marriage for some time, and in Nauvoo he began to teach other leaders the doctrine. Controversy arose because Smith's counselor in the First Presidency and Mayor, John C. Bennett, was caught in adultery (which Bennett considered and referred to as "spiritual wifery" or having multiple "spiritual" wives) claiming that Joseph Smith endorsed it and practiced it himself. However, this was inaccurate as the doctrine of plural marriage involved an actual legal marriage whereas Bennett simply seduced the women for sexual favors. Bennett was subsequently expelled from Nauvoo in the summer of 1842 and Smith himself became the city's second mayor. Bennett's fall led to the beginning of Brigham Young's rise among Smith's confidants. In the end, Young proved more loyal than Bennett, helping Smith promote the practice of plural marriage with greater discretion.
Another key development was Smith's 1844 establishment of the Council of Fifty based upon his political theory of Theodemocracy. An extension of the Mormon belief of an imminent Millennium, this council was meant to be a political organization which could immediately fill the roles of purely secular governments which would be destroyed at Christ's Second Coming. While evidence shows that the organization was meant to be fully functional only in the absence of secular government and that its governing principles were to be based on the United States Constitution, overblown reports of the organization, which met in secret, helped fuel rumors of an aggressive theocracy with Joseph Smith as its king. The Council had little actual power, but remained in existence far after the Nauvoo period.

Growing Unease with Mormons

Non-Mormons in Hancock County, especially in the towns of Warsaw and Carthage, felt threatened by the political power of the growing Mormon bloc-voting, fearing theocracy. In Nauvoo, Joseph Smith, Jr. was not only President of the Church, he was Mayor, head of the municipal court, and general of the militia. This plus the fact that the Mormons benefited from a collective effort as opposed to the more isolated and independent non-Mormon farmer, caused many non-LDS in the nearby areas to become suspicious and jealous.^[7]
Throughout much of the Nauvoo period, officials from Missouri attempted to arrest Smith and extradite him on charges relating to the Mormon War. Whenever he was apprehended, Smith would routinely appeal to the Nauvoo Municipal Court, which would issue writs of ''habeas corpus'' and force his release. The court regularly did the same whenever non-Mormons tried to arrest Latter Day Saints on any charge, and Illinoians began to consider this a subversion of the judiciary, apparently unaware of the vindictive and vigilante nature of Missourians seeking Joseph Smith.
Dissatisfaction with the perceived theocracy also arose from within. In 1844, First Presidency member, William Law — an important merchant and counselor to Smith — broke with the church president over the issue of plural marriage. After plotting Smith's death, Law was excommunicated and founded a reformed church called the True Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. He also established a newspaper named the ''Nauvoo Expositor'' which threatened to expose the practice of plural marriage. On June 10, Smith held a meeting of the city council which after two full days of meeting condemned the ''Expositor'' as "a public nuissance" and empowered him to order the press destroyed. (''See Nauvoo Expositor for more information on this event.'')
Though this was not the only similar event in the time period, and was arguably lawful under the charter of Nauvoo, the destruction of the press was the opportunity desired by critics such as Thomas Sharp, whose paper in nearby Warsaw had been openly calling for destruction of the Church. Fanned by Sharp and others, public sentiment held that the action was illegal and unconstitutional, and non-Mormons in Illinois, in particular the disaffected in and around Hancock county, began to clamor for Smith's arrest. When he submitted to imprisonment in the county seat, Carthage, a mob attacked the jail and assassinated him, this despite assurances of his safety from Illinois governor Ford. This is known in the Church as ''The Matryrdom''. (''See Death of Joseph Smith, Jr. for more information on this event.'')

Nauvoo and "Theocracy"

Despite the understandable perceptions of contemporary and modern critics, Nauvoo was not a "theocracy" in theory or in practice. Nauvoo's municipal structure was rather unremarkable for the time, and mirrored numerous other Illinois towns which were incorporated during the same period.^[8] The city was never religiously homogenous and always included non-Mormons. In fact, prominent non-Mormons were regularly elected to serve on the city council despite their minority status in the community, and the council attempted to secure for Nauvoo by ordinance the kind of religious toleration which the Latter-day Saints never had received in other parts of the country. To this end, the city council authorized serious sanctions against the persecution of any religious sect within the city of Nauvoo. It is true that LDS Church leaders, including Joseph Smith, were also in important civil and military offices which caused great consternation to the surrounding population. However, these men were elected to their positions through valid republican process and stood for election like any other candidate. While some states barred clergymen from civil office at the time, Illinois was not one of them, and the Supreme Court has since found that practice unconstitutional in ''McDaniel v. Paty''.^[9]
However, others would point to the Council's use of ''habeas corpus'' to defend Joseph Smith from extradition to Missouri as well as other municipal actions as proof of Nauvoo's theocratic nature. While many of the city council's actions would certainly be legally questionable today, most were arguably legal at the time they were enacted although they offended many contemporaries. But these actions did not speak of a purposeful theocratic institution. Rather, the political ambitions of Mormon leaders were mainly a self-defense mechanism to ensure that the depredations of the Mormon War never occurred again. The Saints had learned from hard experience that they could trust no one to protect their interests but their own. Always fearing continued mob violence or persecution by the government, Mormons readily elected church officials to civil office who had proved their loyalty during times of persecution and tribulation. Indeed, they felt this was part of their divinely ordained duty to elect "honest men and wise men...[for] whatsover is less than these cometh of evil."^[10] But, such measures as these leaders took to defend the Saints inevitably alienated both their non-Mormon neighbours, and even some church members as mentioned above. At the same time, misunderstandings and misconceptions based upon Joseph Smith's teachings about "Theodemocracy" and a future Political Kingdom of God significantly exacerbated these tensions.

The "Mormon War in Illinois" and the Mormon Exodus

After Smith's death, the agitation and conflict against Mormons continued and escalated into what was sometimes called the "Mormon War in Illinois." Opponents of the Mormons in Warsaw and Carthage began to agitate for the expulsion of the Latter Day Saints from Illinois. In October of 1844, a great gathering was announced in Warsaw. Although it was purported to be a "wolf hunt," it was known that the "wolves" to be hunted were the Mormons. When Governor Thomas Ford became aware of it, he sent militia troops to disperse the gathering. However, as he later recalled:
:"The malcontents abandoned their design, and all the leaders of it fled to Missouri. The Carthage Greys fled almost in a body, carrying their arms along with them. During our stay in the county the anti-Mormons thronged into the camp and conversed freely with the men, who were fast infected with their prejudices, and it was impossible to get any of the officers to aid in expelling them".^[1]
Vigilante bands continued to roam the county, forcing Latter Day Saints in outlying areas to abandon their homes and gather to Nauvoo for protection.
When the Illinois state legislature met in December of 1844, there was great support for the repeal of the Nauvoo Charter. Governor Ford conceded that the charter's privileges had been "much abused" by the Mormons, but he urged that the legislature merely amend the document, saying "I do not see how ten or twelve thousand people can do well in a city without some chartered privileges".^[1] However, on January 29, 1845, the repeal was overwhelmingly passed by a vote of 25-14 in the Senate and 75-31 in the House.
After its disincorporation, Nauvoo was forced to operate extralegally. The forms of civil institutions were eroded or dissolved and the church operated as the government. Thus, as a result of state disincorporation, not out of choice, Nauvoo in its later years took on the theocratic character which had earlier been so feared. It was known informally by its residents as the "City of Joseph" while disincorporated. Brigham Young, who gained control of Nauvoo after a succession crisis, established what were known as "whittling and whistling brigades." These vigilantes were made up of Mormon men and boys who "whistled" while "whittling" with large knives that they held close to any suspicious strangers who dared enter Nauvoo. According to one witness:
:"The process of whittling out an officer was as follows: A great tall man by the name of [Hosea] Stout was the captain of the Whittling society, and he had about a dozen assistants. They all had great bowie knives and would get a long piece of pine board and get up close to the officer and pretend to be cutting the pine board, but would cut over it and cut near the officer. In the meantime, small boys would get tin pans, old bells and all sorts of things to make a noise with and surround the officer. No one would touch or say a word to him, but the noise drowned all that he would say".^[1]
Nauvoo's population peaked at about this time in 1845; it may have had as many as 12,000 inhabitants (and several nearly as large suburbs) — rivaling Chicago, whose 1845 population was about 15,000.
But by the end of 1845 it became clear that no peace was possible, and Mormon leaders negotiated a truce so that the Latter Day Saints could prepare to abandon the city. The winter of 1845-46 saw the enormous preparations for the Mormon Exodus via the Mormon Trail. In early 1846, the majority of the Latter Day Saints emptied the city. After the departure of the Mormons, the temple stood until destroyed by arsonists on November 19, 1848.
159 years later, on April 1, 2004, the Illinois House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution of regret for the forced expulsion of the Mormons from Nauvoo in 1846.

Subsequent History

Emma Hale Smith, Joseph's widow, continued to live in Nauvoo with her family after the departure of the majority of the Latter Day Saints. In 1860, their son, Joseph Smith III claimed to receive a revelation to take his place as Prophet/President of a group known as ''The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.'' He continued to live in Nauvoo, which functioned as headquarters of this church (now known as the Community of Christ) until 1865. In 1866, Smith moved from Nauvoo to Plano, Illinois, where the church's printing house had been established. He personally took over the editorship of the ''Saint's Herald'', and Plano became the headquarters of the church. In his final years, members of the church began to move to Independence, Missouri, which Smith's father had designated as the "centerplace" of the "City of Zion." Latter Day Saints had wanted to return to this theologically important ground since their expulsion in 1833.

Icarians

In 1849, Icarians moved to the Nauvoo area to implement a utopian socialist commune based on the ideals of French philosopher Étienne Cabet. At its peak, the colony numbered over 500 members, but dissension over legal matters and the death of Cabet in 1856 caused some members to leave this parent colony and move on to other Icarian locations in East St. Louis, Illinois, and Iowa and California. Descendants of this Icarian colony still live in Hancock and McDonough counties. The Icarian historical collection is located at the Western Illinois University library in Macomb.

Nauvoo Today

On the city's higher ground are the Temple, residential areas, and the business district along Mulholland Street (Illinois route 96), much of it devoted to the needs of tourists and those interested in Mormon history. The flatlands are occupied by a small number of 19th century brick houses and other buildings that have survived the city's vicissitudes, with large empty spaces between them where houses and whole neighborhoods have entirely disappeared.
The Community of Christ, which was organized by Joseph Smith III, son of Joseph Smith Jr., owns much of the southern end of the flatlands, and maintains several key historic sites located in and around Nauvoo. These sites include the Joseph Smith Homestead, the Red Brick Store, the Mansion House, and the Smith family cemetery overlooking the Mississippi River that is the final resting place of Joseph Smith Jr., his wife Emma, and his brother Hyrum. Guided tours are available at the church's Nauvoo Visitors Center, located at the south end of the town and accessible from Highway 96.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints owns most of the other historic sites in Nauvoo, including the homes of Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and other early members of the church, as well as other significant buildings. Most of these sites are open to the public, with demonstrations and displays, and there are self-guided driving tours as well as wagon tours. These tours are free, as are the stage and riverside theatrical productions. There is a large visitors center complete with two theatres and a relief map of 1846 Nauvoo.
In June 2002, on the site of the original temple, the church completed construction of a new temple. The exterior, and much of the interior, is a copy of the original. The exterior matches the original exactly except in 3 ways: The Temple was positioned 12.5 feet south to allow for parking on the north side, there are 2 new exterior doors(handicapped entrance on the North and emergency exits in the basement on the East), there is a standing Moroni as is seen on most modern temples (the original was an unspecified flying angel in a horizontal position with the compass, square and flame above. ^[1])
The rebuilding of the Nauvoo Temple was an occasion of great joy and enthusiasm for Church members and some 350,000 people, church members and nonmembers alike, toured the temple between its completion and dedication. Following LDS Church custom, the Temple itself is now not open to visitors.
In comparison to other towns in the area, Nauvoo has seen consistent population growth since the completion of the temple.
The work to renovate various sites of historical significance in the area are coordinated by ''Nauvoo Restoration, Incorporated''. NRI is a nonprofit organization supported by both the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Community of Christ, as well as others interested in Nauvoo's history. Due to the work of NRI and its members, Nauvoo has been dubbed the "Williamsburg of the Midwest." In March 2007, Nauvoo was nominated to compete as one of the Seven Wonders of Illinois[1]. Due to voting irregularities Nauvoo did not proceed into the final round of voting.
Nauvoo sponsors numerous activities throughout the year including The Nauvoo Pageant (July/August) and Pumpkin walk (October).

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,063 people, 403 households, and 276 families residing in the city. The population density was 121.4/km² (314.4/mi²). There were 458 housing units at an average density of 52.3/km² (135.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.08% White, 0.28% African American, 0.47% Native American, 0.19% Asian, 0.94% from other races, and 1.03% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.60% of the population.
There were 403 households out of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.3% were married couples living together, 6.9% have a female householder with no husband present and 31.3% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city the population was spread out with 24.6% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 21.9% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 23.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 88.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $39,519, and the median income for a family was $49,167. Males had a median income of $37,895 versus $24,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,150. About 5.6% of families and 12.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.2% of those under age 18 and 18.2% of those age 65 or over.

Commerce and Industry

The Nauvoo Blue Cheese company started producing cheese in the 1930s. It was discovered that the cool, moist wine cellars in the area were ideal for aging cheese. The wine cellars, and the wine making business originally started by the Icarians, saw a decline in use because of prohibition. In 2003 the Nauvoo Cheese company went out of business, but current plans call for the start-up of the cheese making business in Nauvoo. ^[15]

Notes

1.
2.
3. The word is found in the Hebrew of ''Isaiah'' 52:7.
4.
5.
6.
7. Heidi S. Swinton and Lee Groberg, ''Sacred Stone'' (2002), a PBS documentary and companion book, see. p. 86-87
8. ''See'' James L. Kimball, Jr., The Nauvoo Charter: A Reinterpretation, in KINGDOM ON THE MISSISSIPPI REVISITED 40.
9. ''McDaniel v. Paty'', 435 U.S. 618 (1978).
10. Doctrine and Covenants 98:10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

References

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