'Neopaganism' or 'Neo-Paganism' is an
umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of
new religious movements, particularly those influenced by ancient and pre-
Abrahamic Pagan religions.
[1][2]
These movements are extremely diverse. The beliefs of adherents of Neopaganism range widely from
monotheism to
polytheism as well as other paradigms. ''See''
List of Pagan Traditions.
Many Neopagans practice a
spirituality that is entirely modern in origin, while others attempt to
reconstruct or revive culturally historic Pagan and indigenous
belief systems.
[3]
Etymology
The word ''Pagan'' comes from the Latin (''paganus'', literally ''country dweller''), originally meaning ''rustic'' or ''from the country''. As the cities converted to
Christianity, the rural folk held onto their old beliefs longer. Always
pejorative, ''pagan'' was applied to polytheistic religions to indicate they were nothing more than the rural superstitions of the uneducated farmers.
Neopaganism may be defined as a "post-
Christian"
new religious movement, and is pronouncedly a modern phenomenon with its roots in early
19th century Romanticism. Other Neopagans stress a connectedness or lineage with older forms of Paganism in terms of an alleged "underground" continuity or tradition but such claims often display
fakelore as opposed to outright reconstruction or cultural continuation.
[4]
Terminology
The term "Neopagan" is used by academics and adherents alike to identify
Pagan traditions which are largely modern in origin, or which are conceived as reconstructions, continuations or revivals of ancient practices.
While "pagan" (lowercase) is still used by many to denote an irreligious person, adherents of modern Pagan and Neopagan religions capitalize these words because, in these cases, the words are being used to describe a set of religious pracitices, or adherents to these, "in the same way as one would describe a 'Christian' or a 'Jew'."
The term "Neopagan" provides a means of distinguishing between historical Pagans of ancient cultures and the adherents of modern religious movements. The category of religions known as "Neopagan" besides
polytheistic reconstructionism includes syncretistic or eclectic approaches like
Wicca,
Neodruidism, and many others.
[5]
"
Reconstructionists" - those who practice modern forms of culturally-specific historical pagan religions - sometimes self-identify as Pagan or Neopagan, depending on their respective personal or group belief. Generally, most reconstructionists avoid usage of the term "Neopagan" and even "Pagan", instead preferring terms like "polytheist", or traditional terms from the languages of their specific cultures.
Some Reconstructionists do not identify as part of the Neopagan community, although in a purely technical sense, their traditions are "Neopagan" since even the most historically accurate reconstructions are now being practiced by modern people in a contemporary context.
[6][7]
Reconstructionism attempts to understand and historical beliefs and worldviews and emulate them in the contemporary world. This should be distinguished from attempts to reconstruct the entire setting of a historical epoch, known as
living history or
historical reenactment.
History
The roots of Neopaganism begin with the
Renaissance and the reintroduction of
Classicism and the resurgence of interest in
Graeco-Roman polytheism in the wake of works like the ''
Theologia mythologica'' of 1532.
The
Romantic movement of the
18th century led to the re-discovery of
Old Norse literature and
Germanic poetry. Based on this, the 19th century saw a surge of interest in
Germanic paganism with the
Viking revival in the
British Isles and in
Scandinavia. In
Germany the
Völkisch movement was in full swing. These Neopagan currents coincided with Romanticist interest in
folklore and
occultism, and the rise of
nationalism.
[8]
During this resurgence in the
United Kingdom,
Neo-Druidism and various Western occult groups emerged, such as the
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the
Ordo Templi Orientis, who attempted to syncretize "exotic" elements like Egyptian cosmology and
Kabbalah into their belief systems, although not necessarily for purely religious purposes. Influenced by the anthropologist Sir
James George Frazer's ''
The Golden Bough'', several prominent writers and artists were involved in these organizations, including
William Butler Yeats,
Maud Gonne,
Arthur Edward Waite, and
Aleister Crowley. Along with these early occult organizations, there were other social phenomena such as the interest in
mediumship, and an interest in
magic and other supernatural beliefs which were at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
In the
1920s Margaret Murray theorized that a
witchcraft religion existed underground and in secret, and had survived through the witchcraft prosecutions by
ecclesiastic and
courts. Most historians now reject Murray's theory, as it was partially based on the similarities of the accounts given by those accused of witchcraft and such similarity is thought to actually derive from the standard set of questions laid out in
witch-hunting manuals that were used by interrogators.
[9] Murrays idea nevertheless exerted great influence on certain neopagan currents; in the
1940s, Englishman
Gerald Gardner claimed to have been initiated into a
New Forest coven. ''
Gardnerian Wicca'' is used to refer to the traditions of Neopaganism that adhere closely to Gardner's teachings, differentiating it from similar traditions, such as
Alexandrian Wicca.
In the meantime,
Germanic mysticism in Germany had developed into baroque forms such as
Guido von List's "Armanism", from the 1900s merging into
anti-semitic and
national mysticist (''
völkisch'') currents, notably with
Lanz von Liebenfels' ''
Guido von List Society'' and ''
Ostara'' magazine, which with the rise of
Nazism were partially absorbed into
Nazi occultism (while other Germanic mysticist groups, such as the ''
Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft'' of
Ludwig Fahrenkrog were disendorsed by the Nazi regime).
Such distortions of Germanic mythology were denounced by
J. R. R. Tolkien, e.g. in a 1941 letter where he speaks of Hitler's corruption of "that noble northern spirit, a supreme contribution to Europe, which I have ever loved and tried to present in its true light" (''
Letters'', 55-56). Because of such connections with Nazism, neopaganism was virtually eclipsed for about two decades following
World War II.
The
1960s and
1970s saw a resurgence in
Neodruidism as well as the rise of
Germanic Neopaganism and
Ásatrú in the
USA and in
Iceland. The
1980s and
1990s saw, on the one hand, an increasing interest in serious academic research and
Reconstructionist Pagan traditions, and on the other, popularization and syncretism with elements of
New Age,
counter-culture.
Wicca was notably influenced by
feminism in the 1970s, leading to the creation of an eclectic movement known as
Dianic Wicca, and further diversified into other sub-denominations, distinguished from
British Traditional Wicca which emphasizes initiatory lineage.
Oberon Zell-Ravenheart was a modern popularizer of the term "Neo-Pagan", beginning in
1967 with the early issues of ''
Green Egg'', described as being published by "the 1st Neo-Pagan
Church of All Worlds".
Historical sources
Many Neopagans and Neopagan traditions attempt to incorporate elements of historical religions, cultures and mythologies into their beliefs and practices, often emphasizing the hoary age of their sources. Thus, Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as the ''"Old Religion"'', a term popularized by Margaret Murray in the 1920s, while
Germanic Neopaganism (more properly defined as a
Meso-Paganism) is referred to as ''
Forn Sed'' or ''"the Old Way"''. Such emphasis on the antiquity of religious tradition is not exclusive to Neopaganism, and is found in many other religions. For example the terms ''
Purana'', ''
Sanatana Dharma'', and the emphasis on the antiquity of the
Ancient Egyptian sources of the
Hellenistic Mystery religions. Antiquity of source suggests authenticity and authority to many believers.
Some claims of continuity between Neopaganism and older forms of Paganism have been shown to be spurious, or outright false, as in the case of
Iolo Morganwg's
Druid's Prayer. Wiccan beliefs of an ancient monotheistic
Goddess were inspired by
Marija Gimbutas's description of
Neolithic Europe. The factual historical validity of her theories have been disputed by many scholars, including historian
Ronald Hutton.
While most Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient traditions are not generally considered to be literally factual by Neopagans, in the sense that the
Bible and other Abrahamic texts are often thought of by their followers. Eclectic Neopagans in particular are resistant to the concept of
scripture or excessive structure, considering personal freedom to be one of the primary goals of their spirituality.
[10] In contrast, some Reconstructionist sects, like those who practice
Theodism, take a stricter religious approach, and only recognize certain historical texts and sources as being relevant to their belief system, intentionally focusing on one culture to the exclusion of others, and having a general disdain for the eclectic mentality.
The
mythological sources of the various Neopagan traditions are similarly varied, including
Celtic,
Norse,
Greek,
Roman,
Sumerian,
Egyptian and others. Some groups focus solely on one cultural tradition, while others draw from several. For example,
Doreen Valiente's text ''The
Charge of the Goddess'' used materials from ''The Gospel of Aradia'' by Charles G. Leland (1899), as well as material from Aleister Crowley's writings.
Some Neopagans also draw inspiration from modern traditions, including
Christianity,
Buddhism and others, creating syncretisms like "Christian Witchcraft" or "Buddheo-Paganism".
[11] Since many Neopagan beliefs do not require exclusivity, some Neopagans practice other faiths in parallel.
Since eclectic Neopagans take a rather undogmatic religious stance,
and sometimes see no one as having authority to deem a source "apocryphal", Neopaganism has been notably prone to
fakelore, especially in recent years, as information and misinformation alike have been spread on the
Internet and in
print media. A number of
Wiccan, Neopagan and even some "Traditionalist" or "Tribalist" groups have a history of spurious "Grandmother Stories" – usually involving initiation by a Grandmother, Grandfather, or other elderly relative who is said to have instructed them in the secret, millennia-old traditions of their ancestors. As this "secret wisdom" has almost always been traced to recent sources, or been quite obviously concocted even more recently, most proponents of these stories have eventually admitted they made them up.
[12]
Ecological and mystical currents
Neopaganism generally emphasizes the sanctity of
Earth and Nature. Some Neopagans are influenced by
Animist traditions of the indigenous
Native Americans and
Africans.
Neopagans often feel a duty to protect the Earth through
activism, and support causes such as
rainforest protection,
Organic farming,
permaculture,
animal rights and so on - the frequent embracing of animal rights by Neopagans stands sharply at odds with historic European Paganism, in which
animal sacrifice was all but universal.
[13] Many Neopagans who are
vegetarian or
vegan are only such in response to the modern
factory farm, finding its methods of ending animal life for food or other uses inhumane.
Many Neopagans refer to themselves as following Nature-based spirituality, and this ethic links Neopagan spiritual practitioners with indigenous, shamanic, and other traditions that supposedly pre-date agricultural civilizations.
Concepts of the divine
Most Neopagan traditions are
polytheistic, but the interpretation of the concept of
deity or deities varies widely, including
monist,
pantheist,
panentheist,
dualist,
deist,
animist,
henotheist,
psychological and
mystical variations and interpretations.
Hutton states that the historical Pagans did not see ''"All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God"'', but some types of modern Neopagans believe that there is but a single
divinity or life force of the universe, which is
immanent in the world. The various manifestations and
archetypes of this divinity are not viewed as wholly separate, but as different aspects of the divine which are ineffable.
In Wicca, (especially
Dianic Wicca) the concept of an Earth or Mother
Goddess similar to the Greek
Gaia is emphasized. Male counterparts are also evoked, such as the
Green Man and the
Horned God (who is loosely based on the Celtic
Cernunnos.) These
duo-theistic philosophies tend to emphasize the God and Goddess' (or Lord and Lady's) genders as being analogous to a concept similar to that of
yin and yang in ancient
Chinese philosophy; ie, two complementary opposites. Many Oriental philosophies equate weakness with femininity and strength with masculinity; this is not the prevailing attitude in Neopaganism and Wicca.
[14] Among many Neopagans, there is a strong desire to incorporate the female aspects of the divine in their worship and within their lives, which can partially explain the attitude which sometimes manifests as the
veneration of women.
[15] Other Neopagans reject the concept of binary
gender roles.
Historical Paganism, particularly in the
Mediterranean, tended to regard beliefs as valid as long as they conformed to the traditions and customs, or ''cultural patrimony'' of the people. As
Christian eschatology became a rising force, Pagan thinkers such as
Celsus and the
Roman Emperor Julian wrote arguments against Christian claims and in defense of the traditional religions, which give us insight into their contrasting beliefs.
Worship and ritual
Many Neopagan traditions include
occult or "magical" elements in their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular emphasises the role of
witchcraft and ritual. Other Neopagan traditions may include a belief in the supernatural, but place much less emphasis on the working of magic.
Most Neopagan religions celebrate the cycles and seasons of nature through a festival calendar that honors these changes. The timing of festivals, and the rites celebrated, may vary from climate to climate, and will also vary (sometimes widely) depending upon which particular Neopagan religion the adherent subscribes to.
Number of adherents
Adherents.com estimates that there are roughly one million Neopagans worldwide (as of 2000).
[16]
High estimates by Neopagan authors may reach several times that number.
[17]
A precise number is impossible to establish, because of the largely uninstitutionalised
nature of the religion, and the secrecy observed by such institutions as there are
[18], sometimes explained by fear of
discrimination.
Britain
A study by
Ronald Hutton compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major UK organizations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This estimate accounted for multiple membership overlaps as well as the number of adherents represented by each attendee of a Neopagan gathering. Hutton estimated that there are 250,000 Neopagan adherents in
the United Kingdom, roughly equivalent to the national
Hindu community.
[19]
North America
In the United States, the
ARIS 2001 study based on a poll conducted by The Graduate Center at
The City University of New York found that an estimated 140,000 people self-identified as Pagans; 134,000 self-identified as Wiccans; and 33,000 self-identified as Druids. This would bring the total of groups largely accepted under the modern popular western definition of Neopagan to 307,000. Other groups measured in the report, such as
Native Americans,
New Agers and a significant portion of
Unitarian Universalists, could be categorized under this definition, but many of these adherents would not consider themselves Pagan nor would the mainstream Pagan communities accept them as such.
The
Covenant of the Goddess conducted a poll of U.S. and Canadian Neopagans in
1999 that estimated the population in those countries at 768,400. This would seem to support the view that there are at least one million adherents, worldwide. This poll was not scientific and represents a self selected subset of all Neopagans, but it does provide some interesting insights that confirm what many Neopagans have observed anecdotally. Some other statistics from this poll are:
★ 65% of respondents were between 26 and 39 years of age
★ 86% were registered to vote, a figure much higher than the national average
★ There were nearly three times as many women as men (71%)
★ 13% have served in the
Armed Forces, and Neopagan women served at a higher rate than the general population - 32% of Neopagans who reported having been in the Armed Forces were female
Forms
The term "Neopaganism" encompasses a very broad range of groups and beliefs.
Syncretic or
eclectic approaches are usually inspired by historical traditions, but not bound by any strict identification with a historical religion or culture.
Gardnerian and
Alexandrian Wicca,
British Traditional Wicca, and variations such as
Dianic Wicca are examples of eclectic traditions, as are
Neo-druid groups like
Ár nDraíocht Féin.
Wicca
Main articles: Wicca
Wicca is the largest Neopagan religion in the
USA. Wicca is a modern religion first publicized in 1954 by
Gerald Gardner. Gardner claimed that the religion was a modern survival of an old
witch cult, originating in the pre-Christian Paganism of Europe and existing in secret for centuries. Various forms of Wicca have since evolved or been adapted from Gardner's British Traditional Wicca or
Gardnerian Wicca such as
Alexandrian Wicca. Other forms loosely based on Gardner's teachings are
Faery Wicca,
Kemetic Wicca,
Judeo-Paganism or "jewitchery",
Dianic Wicca or "Feminist Wicca" - which emphasizes the divine feminine, often creating women-only or lesbian-only groups.
[20] The common denominator amongst all the variants of Wicca are a reverence for nature and active ecology, venerations of a
Goddess and/or
Horned God, elements of a variety of ancient
mythologies, a belief in and practice of
magic and sometimes the belief in
reincarnation and
karma.
Members of a
Romuva (
Lithuanian reconstructionist) group conduct an indigenous Spring ''Jorė'' ritual in
Kulionys, Lithuania.
Reconstructionism
Main articles: Polytheistic reconstructionism
In contrast to the eclectic traditions,
Reconstructionists are usually very culturally oriented and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of Paganism, in a modern context. For example, adherents of
Hellenic polytheism reconstruct the practices and beliefs of
Ancient Greece, while
Kemetic,
Celtic and
Germanic Reconstructionists practice the indigenous beliefs of
Ancient Egypt,
Celtic Paganism and
Germanic Paganism, respectively.
Syncretism
Main articles: Syncretism
Neo-pagans often point to pagan elements in Christian history; a notable example being the adoption of local gods in Christianity as
saints. There are other historical syncretisms that happened in a less oppressive way, such as the
Scottish traditions that are a product of centuries of combined Norse and Celtic influence.
[21] The
early Celtic church was an excellent example of syncretism at work, and it wasn't until the end of the
8th century A.D. that Rome had managed to get its half-pagan Irish child properly Christianized. In
early Medieval times, a sacred flame was tended at the monastery of
St. Brigid in the same area (in
Kildare or in nearby Dun Ailinne) where
Pagan priestesses previously kept vigil tending a flame.
[22] Now
Kildare Cathedral stands on those grounds.
[23]
Other forms
★ Eco-Paganism and Eco-Magic, which are
off-shoots of
direct action environmental groups, have a strong emphasis on
fairy imagery and a belief in the possibility of intercession by the fae (fairies,
pixies,
gnomes,
elves, and other spirits of nature and the
Otherworlds).
[24]
★ Some
Unitarian Universalists are eclectic Pagans. Unitarian Universalists look for spiritual inspiration in a wide variety of religious beliefs. The
Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans, or CUUPs, encourages their member chapters to "''use practices familiar to members who attend for worship services but not to follow only one tradition of Paganism.''"
[25]
See also
★
Paganism
★
Hermeticism
★
Hierology
★
List of religions
★
New Age
Related theological concepts
;Complementary
★
Animism
★
Henotheism
★
Monolatrism
★
Open source religion
★
Meso-Paganism
★
Paleo-Paganism
★
Pantheism
★
Panentheism
★
Polytheism
★
Unitarian Universalism
★
Universalism
;Contrasting
★
Dualism
★
Monism
★
Monotheism
References
1. Lewis, James R. ''The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements'' (Oxford University Press, 2004). p. 13. ISBN 0195149866.
2. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. ''New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought'' (Brill Academic Publishers, 1996). p. 84. ISBN 9004106960.
3. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess Worshippers and Other Pagans in America, , Margot, Adler, Penguin Books, , ISBN 0143038192
4. Adler (1986) pp.9, 136-152, 326
5. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess Worshippers and Other Pagans in America, , Margot, Adler, , ,
6. Adler (2006) pp.243-299
7. Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group ISBN 0-8065-2710-2. pp.128-140
8. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, , Ronald, Hutton, , 2001, ISBN 0-19-285449-6 p.22
9. Hutton, ''Triumph of the Moon'' pp.194-201
10. Adler (1986) p.23
11. Telesco, Patricia (ed) (2005) ''Which Witch is Which?'' Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books. ISBN 1-56414-754-1 pp.94-8
12. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today, , Margot, Adler, Beacon Press, , ISBN 0-8070-3237-9 Author quotes Alex Sanders claim of initiation by grandmother as a child in 1933, yet the Alexandrian rituals, "so resemble the Gardnerian rituals [written in the 1940s] that Alex's story of their origin is often questioned." Victor Anderson of the Feri tradition tells similar story, but his rituals also seem largely based on Gardner's writings. Author adds: "Gardner, for whatever reasons, preferred to maintain the fiction that he was simply carrying on an older tradition. This fiction, wrote Aidan [Kelly], has put modern Craft leaders 'into the uncomfortable position of having to maintain that stance also, despite the fact that doing so goes, I suspect, against both their common sense and better judgement.'" Quoting Ed Fitch, "I think all of us have matured somewhat. After a while you realize that if you've heard one story about an old grandmother, you've heard six or seven just like it." Quoting Gwydion Pendderwen, "Yes, I wrote a fantasy. It was a desire. It was something I wished would happen. Perhaps that's why there are so many of these fantasies running around in the Craft today, and people trying to convince other people that they're true. It is certainly so much more pleasant and 'magical' to say 'It happened this way,' instead of 'I researched this. I wrote these rituals. I came up with this idea myself.'"
13. Lewis, James R. (2001) ''Odd Gods: New Religions and the Cult Controversy''. Prometheus Books ISBN-10: 1573928429
14. York, Michael. ''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion''. New York: NYU Press, 2003. Pg 22-23. ISBN 0814797083.
15. Clifton, Chas. "A Goddess Arrives." Gnosis Fall 1988: 20-29.
16. [1]; including "Wicca, Magick, Druidism, Asatru, neo-Native American religion and others".
17.
Phyllis Curott, ''The Book of Shadows: A Modern Woman's Journey Into the Wisdom of Witchcraft and the Magic of the Goddess'' (1998) estimates there are 3 to 5 million Wiccans in the USA alone.
18. Edwards, Catherine. "Wicca Casts Spell on Teen-Age Girls " in Insight online magazine, Vol. 15, No. 39 -- October 25, 1999: "There is much to-do about secrecy, and groups do not release membership rolls."[2]
19. Hutton (2001)
20. Telesco (2005) p.114.
21. Davidson, H.R. Ellis (1988) ''Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions''. Syracuse, Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-2441-7. pp.94, 111-2
22. Monastery of St. Brigid, Celldara
23. Modern Kildare Cathedral
24. Letcher, Andy, " The Scouring of the Shire: Fairies, Trolls and Pixies in Eco-Protest Culture", in ''Folklore'' (Oct, 2001)
25. Official Website of CUUPS
Further reading
★
Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach, , Isaac, Bonewits, , 2003, ISBN 1-59405-501-7
★
The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, , Hutton, Ronald, , 2001, ISBN 0-19-285449-6
★
Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives, , Michael F., Strmiska, ABC-CLIO, 2005,
★
The Survival of the Pagan Gods: The Mythological Tradition and Its Place in Renaissance Humanism and Art, , Jean, Seznec, , 1953, ISBN 0-691-02988-1
External links
★
CUUPS - Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans
★
The Kith of Yggdrasil - UK-based Heathen website
★
Mything Links - A meta page about myths and mythology around the world
★
Neopagan.net - Neopagan author
Isaac Bonewits's thoughts on the development of Neopaganism, modern druidry and public perceptions
★
Pagan Federation A UK-based organization promoting awareness and acceptance of Paganism in Europe and the world.
★
Pagan Association UK Promoting paganism in the Community.
★
PFSA The Pagan Federation of South Africa
★
PaganWiki - ''"Striving to be the most complete pagan resource"''
★
WikiPagan A free content wiki-based website for Neopagans
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