NERVA

'Marcus Cocceius Nerva' (November 8, 30 – January 27, 98) was a Roman Emperor from the death of Domitian in 96 until his own death in 98. Although his reign was brief, Nerva is remembered as the first of the so called Five Good Emperors, who ruled between 96 and 180, a time during which the Roman Empire prospered.
Nerva was the first emperor to select his successor based on his capabilities and potential, rather than paternal relations. Upon his death in 98, he was succeeded by his adopted son Trajan.

Contents

Early career

Family

Public service

Emperor

Accession

Administration

Praetorian crisis

Death and succession

Legacy

Notes

References

Primary sources

Secondary material

Early career

Family

Marcus Cocceius Nerva was born at Narni, c. 80 km north of Rome,^[1] to the family of Marcus Cocceius Nerva and Sergia Plautilla. Ancient sources give the date as either 30 or 35.^[2] Like Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, he was a member of the Italian nobility rather than one of the elite of Rome.
Members of his family had held high office; his great-grandfather, also named Marcus Cocceius Nerva, was consul in 36 BC,^[3] and his grandfather (also Marcus Cocceius Nerva) was in the imperial entourage of Tiberius at the time of Nerva's birth.^[4] He was connected with the Julio-Claudian dynasty from his mother's side through his uncle Octavius Laenas, who had married the great-granddaughter of Tiberius Rubellia Bassa. In addition Nerva's sister may have married emperor Otho's brother Titianus.^[5]

Public service

Not much of Nerva's early career is recorded but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career. According to Tacitus he was praetor-elect during the reign of emperor Nero in 65.^[6] He played a successful part in the unmasking of the Pisonian conspiracy, for which he earned triumphal honors and had his statues placed around the palace. Both Nerva and Vespasian were part of Nero's entourage during this time, and Nerva may have acted as a guardian to the young Domitian when Vespasian was sent to the east in 67 to quell the Jewish rebellion.^[7]
Following the death of Nero in 68, Nerva remained faithful to the Flavians during the civil war of 69, the so called Year of the Four Emperors, which saw the rapid succession and fall of the emperors Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the accession of Vespasian on December 21. For his loyalty, Nerva was rewarded with his first consulship in 71, and he continued his services under Vespasian's sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). In the spring of 89, the governor of Germania superior Lucius Antonius Saturninus led a rebellion against Domitian involving the Legio XIIII Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax.^[8] It has been suggested that Nerva was instrumental in alerting the emperor to this conspiracy, for which he was rewarded with his second consulship in 90. For Domitian however the revolt had a lasting impact on the final years of his reign. His administration became increasingly paranoid and ultimately spiralled into terror.

Emperor

Accession

Bust of emperor Nerva. Getty Villa, California.

On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by a palace conspiracy involving several of his own freedmen.^[9] The ''Fasti Ostienses'', the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day, Marcus Cocceius Nerva was proclaimed emperor. There has been considerable debate as to why Nerva was chosen as emperor and how his accession exactly came about. Whether Nerva had advance knowledge of the conspiracy against Domitian remains unknown,^[10] but according to Cassius Dio, he was approached by the conspirators as a possible successor, not only on account of his qualities as an administrator but also because he was "in imminent danger from Domitian".^[11] However it is now assumed that Nerva was proclaimed emperor by the Senate almost immediately after news broke of the assassination.
Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health, Nerva was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and childless.^[12] Furthermore, he had close connections with the Flavian dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate. For Nerva, the anarchy which had resulted from the death of Nero in 69 would have been fresh in his memory; to hesitate even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict. Rather than decline the invitation and risk revolts, he accepted.
Following the accession of Nerva as emperor, the Senate passed ''damnatio memoriae'' on Domitian: his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.^[13][14] The palace of Domitian was renamed the "House of the People", and Nerva himself took up residence in Vespasian's former villa, the Gardens of Sallust.^[15]

Administration

Remains of a temple dedicated to Minerva, situated on the Forum of Nerva.

The change of government was a breath of relief for the Roman Senate, whose senators had dearly suffered under the terrors of Domitian's regime. As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters, Nerva publicly swore that no senators would be put to death so as long as he remained in office.^[16] He called an end to trials based on treason, released those who had been imprisoned under these charges, and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled. All properties which had been confiscated by Domitian were returned to their respective families. Nerva sought to involve the Senate in his government, however this was not entirely successful. He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors that were known and trusted, and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro-Domitianic faction of the Senate, he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least two conspiries against his life.^[17]
Having been proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, a number of measures had to be introduced in order to gain support among the Roman populace.^[10] Nerva granted allotments of land worth up to 60 million sesterces to the poorest Romans, he exempted parents and their children from a 5% inheritance tax, and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5% to their municipality to support the children of needy families;^[19] alimentary schemes which were later expanded by Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. To the citizens he granted a ''congiarium ''of 75 denarii per head, and it is presumed the Praetorian Guard was bribed with an even higher bonus. Numerous taxes were remitted and privileges were granted to Roman provinces.
The expenses soon proved ruinous for Nerva's administration, and in 97 a special commission had to be formed to drastically cut expenditures. From Domitian's silver and gold statues large amounts of money were obtained; many sacrifices, games and horse races were abolished. Nerva forbade that gold or silver statues be made in his honor, and the most lavish of Domitian's possessions were sold.
No major public works were undertaken during his reign, except the completion of a small Imperial Forum begun by Domitian, which linked the Forum of Augustus to the Temple of Peace.^[20] Little remains, partly because the Via dei Fori Imperiali cuts across it. Archaeological excavation started on this forum in 1999, and continues to the present.

Praetorian crisis

Roman aureus struck under Nerva, ''c.'' 97. The reverse reads ''Concordia Exercituum'', symbolyzing the unity between the emperor and the Roman army with two clasped hands over an army standard.

Despite numerous measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people, support for Domitian remained strong in the army, which had called for his deification immediately after the assassination. On October 97, the Praetorian Guard led by Casperius Aelianus laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Petronius and Parthenius, blamed by the Praetorians for Domitian's death, were killed.
Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. He had no natural children, but found salvation in the idea of adopting someone who would have the support of both the army and the people. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Marcus Ulpius Traianus, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor, and with this decision all but abdicated.^[21][10] Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the consulship with Nerva in 98:

Thus Trajan became Caesar and later emperor, although there were relatives of Nerva living. But Nerva did not esteem family relationship above the safety of the State, nor was he less inclined to adopt Trajan because the latter was a Spaniard instead of an Italian or Italot, inasmuch as no foreigner had previously held the Roman sovereignty; for he believed in looking at a man's ability rather than at his nationality.^[23]

Death and succession

On January 1, 98, at the start of his fourth consulship, Nerva suffered a stroke during a private audience. Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust, on January 27.^[24] He was deified by the Senate, and his ashes were laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Nerva was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan, who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm. According to Pliny the Younger, Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of Nerva,^[25] yet no trace of it has ever been found; nor was a commemorative series of coins issued for the Deified Nerva until ten years after his death. However, Casperius Aelianus, the Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was almost immediately executed.^[26]

Legacy

Ancient history has looked kindly on Nerva's brief reign, although few contemporary sources survive which offer substantial commentary on his policies. He is mostly characterized as wise and moderate, but the lack of interest in his administration may be due to the fact that he was altogether regarded as a transitional figure. The quick accession of Nerva had prevented civil war from erupting, but he was never expected to remain in power long, and quite literally ceased to be useful once Trajan was adopted.
Although Edward Gibbon considered Nerva the first of the Five Good Emperors, he writes that he was perhaps less qualified than his successors:

Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the torrent of public disorders which had multiplied under the long tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was respected by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more vigorous character, whose justice should strike terror into the guilty.^[27]

Modern historians have characterized Nerva as a well-intentioned but ultimately weak and ineffectual ruler; a necessary stop-gap before the Trajanic-Antonine dynasties. Although he brought a halt to the terrors of Domitian's reign, his mismanagement of the state finances brought Rome near bankruptcy. In the end, he was more concerned with maintaining a status quo, relying on his known associates and continuing Flavian policies.
Today statues of Nerva can be found at at Gloucester, England at the entrance to Southgate Street, and at his alleged birthplace Narni in Italy, at Cocceio Nerva street.

Notes

1. Aurelius Victor (attrib.), ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' 12
2. "Aurelius Victor records the year as 35, Cassius Dio as 30. The latter has been more widely accepted" (Wend, n. 2). Ronald Syme considered the dates of Nerva's later offices more consistent with 35; see
3. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#1 XLIX.1
4. Tacitus, ''Annals''
5. Syme (1958), pp. 623–624.
6. Tacitus, ''Annals''
7.
8. Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Domitian ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#6 6
9. Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Domitian ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#14 14
10.
11. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#15 LXVII.15
12.
13. Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Domitian ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#23 23
14. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#1 LXVIII.1
15. Pliny the Younger, ''Panegyricus'' 47.4
16. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#2 LXVIII.2
17. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#3 LXVIII.3
18.
19.
20. Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Domitian ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#5 5
21. Pliny the Younger, ''Panygericus'' 7.4
22.
23. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#4 LXVIII.4
24. Jerome, ''Chronicle'', Romans, p275
25. Pliny the Younger, ''Panegyricus'' 11.1
26. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#5 LXVIII.5
27. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. 1, , Edward, Gibbon, Fred de Fau and Co, 1906,

References

Primary sources

★ ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' Book 68, English translation

★ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' Chapter 12, English translation

Secondary material

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