The 'wars of the
Ottoman Empire in
Europe' marked the better part of the history of
southeastern Europe, notably, giving tolerance to the
Balkans. They are also sometimes referred to as the 'Ottoman wars' or as 'Turkish wars', particularly in older, Eurocentric texts.
Rise (1299–1453)
After striking a blow to the weakened
Byzantine Empire in 1356 (it is disputed that the year may have been 1358 due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see
Suleyman Pasha) which provided it a basis for operations in Europe, The Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Its first significant opponent was the young Serbian Empire, which was worn down by a series of campaigns, notably in the
Battle of Kosovo in
1389, in which the leaders of both armies were killed, and which gained a central role in Serbian folklore as an epic battle and beginning of bad luck for Serbia. The Ottoman Empire proceeded to conquer the lands of the
Second Bulgarian Empire - the Southern half (
Thrace) in
1371 (
Battle of Maritsa),
Sofia in 1382, the then capital
Tarnovgrad in 1393, the northern rest after the
Battle of Nicopolis in
1396, except
Vidin, which fell in
1422;
Albania in
1385 (
Battle of Savra) and again in
1480;
Constantinople in
1453 after the
Battle of Varna and
Second Battle of Kosovo;
Greece in
1460;
Serbia by
1459 and (after partial Hungarian reconquest in 1480) again by
1499;
Bosnia in
1463 (the Northwestern part only by
1527) and
Herzegovina in
1482.
Growth (1453–1683)
The defeat in
1456 at the
Siege of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) held up Ottoman expansion into Catholic Europe for 70 years, though for one year (1480-1481) the Italian port of
Otranto was taken, and in 1493 the Ottoman army successfully raided
Croatia and
Styria.
Albanian Resistance
The Ottomans faced fierce resistance from Albanian highlanders who gathered around their leader,
Skanderbeg (
Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg), the offspring of a feudal nobleman, and managed to fend off Ottoman attacks for more than 30 years. The Albanian struggle was one of the two remaining bastions of anti-Ottoman resistance in Eastern Europe after the
Battle of Kosovo in 1389. It has been argued that their resilience halted the Ottoman advance along the Eastern flank of the Western Civilization, saving the Italian peninsula from Ottoman conquest. Sultan
Mehmet II died in 1481, merely two years after the collapse of the Albanian resistance and one year after he launched the Italian campaign.
Occupation of Hungary
The Kingdom of
Hungary, which at the time spanned the area from
Croatia in the west to
Transylvania in the east, was also gravely impacted by Ottoman conquest. The origins of such a deterioration can be traced back to the fall of the
Ãrpád ruling dynasty and their subsequent replacement with the
Angevin and
Jagiellonian kings. After a series of inconclusive wars over the course of 176 years, the kingdom finally crumbled in the
Battle of Mohács of
1526, after which most of it was either occupied or brought under Ottoman suzerainty. (The 150-year Turkish Occupation, as it is called in Hungary, lasted until the late 1600s but parts of the
Hungarian Kingdom were occupied from 1421 and until 1718.)
1423-1503: Wars with Venice
The Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns as early as
1423, when it waged a seven year war with the
Venetian Republic over maritime control of the
Aegean Sea and the
Adriatic Sea. The wars with Venice resumed in
1463 until a favorable peace treaty was signed in
1479. In
1480 (now no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet) the Ottomans
besieged Rhodes and
captured Otranto. War with Venice resumed from
1499 to
1503. In
1500 a
Spanish-Venetian army commanded by
Gonzalo de Córdoba took Kefalonia, temporarily stopping the Ottoman offensive on eastern Venetian territories.
1462-1483: European campaigns
In
1462,
Mehmed II was driven back by
Wallachian prince
Vlad III Dracula at the
Night Attack; but the later was imprisoned by
Hungarian king
Matthias Corvinus. This caused outrage among many influential Hungarian figures and Western admirers of Vlad's success in battle against the Ottoman Empire (and his early recognition of the threat it posed), including high-ranking members of the
Vatican. Because of this, Matthias granted him the status of distinguished prisoner. Eventually, Dracula was freed in late
1475 and was sent with an army of Hungarian and
Serbian soldiers to recover
Bosnia from the Ottomans. He defeated Ottoman Forces and he gained the first victory against the Ottoman Empire. Upon this victory, Ottoman Forces entered Bogdan in
1476 under the command of Mehmed II. During the war, Vlad was killed and according to some sources his head was sent to Constantinople to discourage the other rebellions.
In 1482, Bosnia was completely added to Ottoman Lands. Bosnians did not complain about being under Ottoman Sovereignty because there was already a sect conflict going in Bosnia and also
Mehmed II did not force Bosnians to convert to Islam.
1526-1566: Attack on Habsburg Empire
After Mohács, only the southwestern part of the
Hungarian Kingdom was actually conquered, but the Ottoman campaign continued with small campaigns and major summer invasions (troops returned south of the
Balkan Mountains before winter) through the land between 1526 and 1556. In
1529, they mounted their first major attack on the
Austrian
Habsburg Monarchy (with up to 300,000 troops in earlier accounts, 100,000 according to newer research), attempting to conquer the city of
Vienna (
Siege of Vienna). In 1532, another attack on Vienna with 60,000 troops in the main army was held up by the small fort (800 defenders) of ''KÅ‘szeg'' in western Hungary, fighting a suicidal battle. The invading troops were held up until winter was close and the Habsburg Empire had assembled a force of 80,000 at Vienna. The Ottoman troops returned home through
Styria, laying waste to the country.
In the meantime, in 1538, the Ottoman Empire invaded
Moldavia. In
1541, another campaign in Hungary took Buda and Pest (which today together form the Hungarian capital
Budapest) with a largely bloodless trick: after concluding peace talks with an agreement, troops stormed the open gates of Buda in the night. In retaliation for a failed Austrian counter-attack in 1542, the conquest of the western half of central Hungary was finished in the
1543 campaign that took both the most important royal ex-capital (
Székesfehérvár) and the ex-seat of the cardinal (
Esztergom). However, the army of 35-40,000 men was not enough for
Suleiman to mount another attack on Vienna. A temporary truce was signed between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires in 1547, which was soon disregarded by the Habsburgs.
In the major but moderately successful campaign of
1552, two armies took the eastern part of central Hungary, pushing the borders of the Ottoman Empire to the second (inner) line of northern ''végvár''s (border castles) which Hungary originally built as defence against an expected second
Mongol invasion — hence, afterwards, borders on this front changed little. For Hungarians, the 1552 campaign was a series of tragic losses and some heroic (but
pyrrhic) victories, which entered folklore - most notably the fall of ''Drégely'' (a small fort defended to the last man by just 146 men), and the
Siege of Eger. The latter was a major ''végvár'' with more than 2,000 men, but in poor shape and without outside help. They faced two Ottoman armies (150,000 troops by earlier accounts, 60-75,000 men according to newer research), which were unable to take the castle within five weeks. (The fort was later taken in
1596). Finally, the 1556 campaign secured Ottoman influence over
Transylvania (which had fallen under Habsburg control for a time), while failing to gain any ground on the western font, being tied down in the second (after 1555) unsuccessful siege of the southwestern Hungarian border castle of
Szigetvár.
The Ottoman Empire conducted another major war against the Habsburgs and their Hungarian territories between 1566 and 1568. The 1566
Battle of Szigetvar, the third siege in which the fort was finally taken, but the aged Sultan died, deterring that year's push for Vienna.
1522-1573: Rhodes and Holy League
Ottoman forces invaded and captured the island of
Rhodes in 1522 (see
Siege of Rhodes). The
Knights of Rhodes were banished to
Malta, which was in turn besieged in
1565. The Ottomans failed to conquer it though and were repulsed.
Ottoman naval victories;
Battle of Preveza (1538),
Battle of Djerba (1560).
The Mediterranean campaign, which lasted from 1570-1573, ended with the Ottoman defeat in the
Battle of Lepanto (1571), but occupation of
Cyprus from 1570. A
Holy League of Venice, the
Papal States,
Spain and initially
Portugal opposed the Ottoman Empire during this period.
1593-1669: Austria and Venice
Turkish Empire, drawn by
Hondius, just at the end of the Long War, 1606
(15-Year War with Austria, 1593-1606) ends with status quo. War with Venice 1645-1669 and the conquest of
Crete (see
Siege of Candia).
1657-1683 Conclusion of Wars with Habsburgs
In 1657, Transylvania, the Eastern part of the former Hungarian Kingdom that after 1526 gained semi-independence while paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire, felt strong enough to attack the
Tatars (then the Empire's vassals) to the East, and later the Ottoman Empire that came to the Tatar's defence. The war lasted until 1662, ending in defeat for the Hungarians. The Western part of the Hungarian Kingdom (''Partium'') was annexed and placed under direct Ottoman control (marking the greatest territorial extent of Ottoman rule in the former Hungarian Kingdom). At the same time, there was another campaign against Austria 1663-1664. However, the Turks were defeated in the
Battle of Saint Gotthard on
August 1,
1664 by
Raimondo Montecuccoli. forcing them to enter the
Peace of Vasvár with
Austria, which held until
1683.
1672-1676: Poland
:''See:
Polish-Ottoman War (1672-1676).''
A year after
Poland beat back a
Tatar invasion, war with
Poland 1672-1676,
Jan Sobieski distinguishes himself and becomes the King of Poland.
1683-1699: Great Turkish War–re-conquest of Hungary
The
Great Turkish War started in
1683, with a grand invasion force (200,000 troops) marching on Vienna, supported by Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. To stop the invasion, a coalition, another
Holy League was formed, composed of Austria and Poland (notably in the
Battle of Vienna), Venetians and the
Russian Empire. After winning the
Battle of Vienna, the
Holy League gained the upper hand, and conducted the re-conquest of Hungary (
Buda and
Pest were retaken in 1686, the former under the command of a Swiss-born convert to Islam.) This war ended with the
Treaty of Karlowitz in
1699.
Prince Eugene of Savoy first distinguished himself in
1683 and remained the most important Austrian commander until 1718.
During the Venetian attack on the city of
Athens (1687) (occupied by the Ottomans), the Ottomans turned the ancient
Parthenon into an ammunitions storehouse. A Venetian mortar hit the Parthenon, detonating the Ottoman gunpowder stored in it and partially destroying it.
Stagnation (1699–1827)
1700s
Second war with the Russians 1710-1711 near
Prut. The Russians were severely beaten but not annihilated.
Another war with Austria and Venice started in 1714. Austria conquers the remaining areas of the former Hungarian Kingdom, ending with the
Treaty of Passarowitz in
1718.
Another war with Russia started in 1735. Austrians join in 1737; the war ends in
1739 with the
Treaty of Belgrade (with Austria) and the
Treaty of Nissa (with Russia).
The fourth Russo-Turkish started in 1768, ends in 1774 with the
Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji.
Yet another war with Russia and Austria started in 1787, ended by Austria with the 1791
Treaty of Sistova, and with the 1792
Treaty of Jassy with Russia.
Invasion of Egypt and Syria by Napoleon I of France in 1798-9, ended due to English intervention.
1800s
The
sixth Russo-Turkish War began in 1806, ended in 1812 due to
Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
First Serbian Uprising in
1804,
Second Serbian Uprising in
1815, fully liberated by
1877.
Moldavian-Wallachian (Romanian) Uprising (starting simultaneously with the
Greek Revolution 1821-1824.
Decline (1828–1908)
Greek War of Independence 1821-1832, in which Great Powers intervene from 1827, including Russia (Seventh Russo-Turkish war, 1828-1829) achieves independence for Greece,
Treaty of Adrianople ends the war.
Wars with Bosnia 1831-1836, 1836-1837,
1841.
War with Montenegro 1852-1853.
Eighth Russo-Turkish war 1853-1856,
Crimean War, in which the
United Kingdom and
France joined the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Ended with the
Treaty of Paris (1856).
Second war with Montenegro 1858-1859.
War with Montenegro, Bosnia and Serbia
1862.
Crete Uprising
1866.
Bulgarian Rebellion in
1876.
The ninth and final Russo-Turkish war started in 1877, the same year the Ottomans withdrew from the
Conference of Constantinople. Romania declares independence and war on Turkey, joined by Serbians and Bulgarians and finally the Russians (see also
Russian Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War). Bosnia was occupied by Austria in
1878. The Russians and the Ottomans sign the
Treaty of San Stefano in early 1878. After deliberations at the
Congress of Berlin which was attended by all the Great Powers of the time, the
Treaty of Berlin, 1878 recognized several territorial changes.
Eastern Rumelia was granted some autonomy in
1878, rebelled in
1885 and joined Bulgaria in
1886.
Thessalia ceded to
Greece in
1881, but after Greece attacks the Ottoman Empire to help the Second
Crete Uprising in
1897, Greece is defeated in Thessalia.
Dissolution (1908–1922)
Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908
Macedonia
Macedonian insurrection from
1903.
1912-1913: Balkan Wars
Two
Balkan Wars, in
1912 and
1913, involved further action against the Ottoman Empire in Europe. The
Balkan League first conquered
Macedonia and most of
Thrace from the Ottoman Empire, and then fell out over the division of the spoils. This reduced Turkey's possessions in Europe (
Rumelia) to their present borders in
Eastern Thrace.
World War I
The Ottoman Empire suffered a defeat in
World War I. Turkey temporarily lost most of the rest of what it had left in Europe.
References
See also
★
Byzantine-Ottoman wars
★
History of the Ottoman Navy
★
Military of the Ottoman Empire
★
Russo-Ottoman Wars
★
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
★
Fall of the Ottoman Empire
★
History of the Republic of Venice
★
Crimean Khanate
★
Barbary pirates
★
Ottoman-Habsburg wars
★
Moldavian Magnate Wars
★
Austro-Ottoman War
★
Ottoman-Venetian War
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