OUR LADY OF GUADALUPE

The image of 'Our Lady of Guadalupe', also called the 'Virgin of Guadalupe' (Spanish: ''Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe'' or ''La Virgen de Guadalupe''; sometimes called by the familiar '''Lupita''') is a 16th-century Mexican icon of the Virgin Mary. It is one of Mexico's most famous cultural and religious images. The feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe is celebrated on December 12, commemorating traditional accounts of her appearances to Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin on the hill of Tepeyac near Mexico City from December 9 through December 12, 1531.
The image of the Virgin of Guadalupe is a symbol important to Mexican identity and Pope John Paul II declared her "Patroness of the Americas" in Mexico City in 1999.

Contents

History

Traditional account of the apparition

Documentation

Controversies

Symbol of Mexico

Mestizo culture and Mexican identity

Religious theories regarding the image

Artistic symbolism

Alleged miraculous properties

Catholic devotions

Buildings for Guadalupan devotion

Further reading

References

Books

Websites

Periodicals

Footnotes

History

Traditional account of the apparition

According to Catholic accounts of the Guadalupan apparition, during a walk from his village to the city on December 9, 1531, Juan Diego saw a vision of a Virgin at the Hill of Tepeyac. Speaking in Nahuatl, Our Lady of Guadalupe said to build an abbey on the site, but when Juan Diego spoke to the Spanish bishop, Fray Juan de Zumárraga, the prelate asked for a miraculous sign. So the Virgin told Juan Diego to gather flowers from the hill, even though it was winter, when normally nothing bloomed. He found Spanish roses, gathered them on his tilma, and presented these to the bishop. According to tradition, when the roses fell from it the icon of the Virgin of Guadalupe appeared imprinted on the cloth.
Historians evaluate^[1] the reality of the apparitions by the sudden, extraordinary success of the evangelizing of the Indians in the decade of 1531-1541, which constitutes the most successful evangelization ever. In this short period close to ten million Indians adopted Christianity, contrasted with the previous decade in which rejection was the norm. Depression and apathy suddenly gave way to enthusiasm and Indians built more churches, as free labor, than many nations had in Europe.

Documentation

A number of primary historical documents are used to support this apparition account, including the Nahuatl-language ''Huei tlamahuiçoltica'' ("The Great Event") which contains the Nican mopohua ("Here it is recounted"), a tract about the Virgin which contains the aforementioned story, and which dating from c. 1556 in the calligraphy of Valeriano as attested by Sigüenza was printed in Nahuatl by Luis Lasso de la Vega in 1649.
A very old and battered partial manuscript copy of the Nican Mopohua in 16 pages, dating c. 1556, can be found at the Public Library of New York; it's been there since 1880 together with two later ones, one of which is complete. The older copy in facsimile has been recently reprinted by Miguel León-Portilla in his ''Tonanzin Guadalupe''. There is an even older manuscript in Nahuatl which precedes the Nican Mopohua: it is known as the "Primitive Relation" of the apparitions, is much shorter, and is conserved in The National Library of México. Well known codices testifying to the fact have been studied, commented, and published by Cuevas and others.
"El Pregón del Atabal" (The Drummer's Claim), attributed to Francisco Plácido—Lord of Azcapotzalco, was performed (according to Florencia who received it from Sigüenza and was later taken up by Cuevas) in the procession which transferred the Image from the primitive Cathedral to the tiny first church at Tepeyac on December 26 1531. It is famous for the line "God created you, Oh Holy Mary, amongst abundant flowers / and made you born again, by painting you at the bishopric." In other words, the image was not on the ayate when the flowers fell, it appeared suddenly before the Bishop. The poem is part of a manuscript known as "Cantares Mexicanos," which can be found at the Biblioteca Nacional (National Library).
There are also several XVI century codices: the "Tira de Tepexpan", "Aztactepec", "Ermitaño", "Heye", etc.; all in museums in several cities: México, Puebla, Paris and New York; and the recently discovered Codex Escalada, a pictographic account of the Virgin on Tepeyac, painted on deerskin and dated 1548. Another valuable XVI Century source is Indian writings in Nahuatl using Latin letters and drawings: "Anales de Juan Bautista", Anales de Tlaltelolco", etc. Full listings are given by de la Torre in "Testimonios históricos guadalupanos". There is also a seventeenth-century engraving by Samuel Stradanus which used the Virgin's image to advertise indulgences.^[2] The first Spanish-language narrative about the apparitions, called ''Imagen de la Virgen María'' ("Image of the Virgin Mary"), was written by Fr. Miguel Sánchez and printed in 1648.

The apparition account is also strengthened by a document called the ''Informaciones Jurídicas'' of 1666, a collection of oral interviews gathered near Juan Diego's hometown of Cuautitlan. In the "Informaciones Jurídicas," various witnesses affirmed, in interview format, basic details about Saint Juan Diego and the Guadalupan apparition story.^[3]
Some historians and clerics, including the U.S. priest-historian Fr. Stafford Poole, the famous Mexican historian Joaquín García Icazbalceta, and former abbot of the Basilica of Guadalupe, Guillermo Schulenburg, have expressed doubts about the accuracy of the apparition accounts. Schulenburg in particular caused a stir with his 1996 interview with the Catholic magazine ''Ixthus,'' when he said that Juan Diego was "a symbol, not a reality."^{[4][5] [6]}
The Codex Escalada, a painting on deerskin which illustrates the apparition and discusses Juan Diego's death, was used to shore up Juan Diego's 1990s canonization process. Critics, including Stafford Poole and David A. Brading, find the document suspicious—partly because of when it was discovered, and partly because it contains the handiwork of both Antonio Valeriano (a man many apparition partisans believe to be the true author of the Nican mopohua) and the signature of Bernardino de Sahagún, the Franciscan missionary and anthropologist. Brading said that:

"Within the context of the Christian tradition, it was rather like finding a picture of St. Paul's vision of Christ on the road to Damascus, drawn by St. Luke and signed by St. Peter".

However, Brading's quip rather than leading to unbelief might be the confirmation of authenticity needed, as it brings to light the difference between St. Luke and St. Peter on one hand; and Valeriano and Sahagún on the other on a simple question: what reason could the first party of Luke and Peter have had to: first, draw the vision; and then, sign the drawing? None of course, absolutely none! What about Valeriano and Sahagún? Valeriano had very good and commonplace reasons: Valeriano was a Colonial authority dependent on the Viceroy, and a short biography stating the following facts is found in "Testimonios Históricos Guadalupanos". He began as Governor of San Juan, and on proof of his great personal competence he was appointed as Governor to all Mexican Indians, a post he held for 35 years. So, in his official capacity he had the Official Seal of Authenticity on these matters. It would have been one of the most commonplace operations of his job. Valeriano was Sahagún most brilliant disciple, and lifelong associate; thus, as attaching two signatures is normally required by law as would pertain Valeriano's official functions, there is an adequate basis for admitting this particular codex as historical evidence.
At the time of the apparitions in 1531, Zumárraga was Bishop-elect: he would be formally consecrated in 1533 and became an Archbishop in 1547.^[7] There is no extant mention of Juan Diego nor the Virgin in any of Zumárraga's conserved writings (which historians, mainly Cuevas, attribute to wanton destruction by opponents of the faith), with one exception, an exultant letter of his to Hernán Cortes which though unsigned with his name, is signed as follows: "De V.S. Capellán, El electo regocijado" - meaning "The rejoicing chosen one (chosen by the Virgin), and Chaplain to your Lordship", and which refers, in 1531, to the festivity of The Immaculate Conception which was celebrated from December 8 to December 17 according to the Sevillian Missal then in use in Mexico (nine days of festivities in which the apparitions from the 9th to the 12th are comprised). The following phrase in the letter: "The great mercy which God and His mother have made to this land you conquered" cannot refer to any other great mercy for there was none other. This letter was published in the "Album Histórico Guadalupano del IV Centenario" in 1931 by the prominent historian Mariano Cuevas S.J. It is also certain that he did inform on the apparitions officially, as there were witnesses to the fact, and was also established canonically by the Informations of 1666. Additionally, there is a testimony by Pedro Mezquía of a copy being kept in the monastery of Vitoria in Spain many years later. In a catechism published in Mexico before his death, it was stated: “The Redeemer of the world doesn’t want any more miracles, because they are no longer necessary." In this quotation from a catechism, some critics have pretended to read a personal denial of the apparitions, but the author is not Zumárraga and this was not even a first printing; all to the contrary, this was a reprint of an old catechism imported from Spain.
Guillermo Schulenburg, the Basílica's abbot for over 30 years, declared in 1996 Juan Diego as a symbol and myth, a constructed character made to conquer the hearts of the native people and redirect their religious allegiance to Christianity and the Vatican. He also commissioned a "serious study out of sheer love for truth", which found the Virgin of Guadalupe to be a man-made painting. However, on a matter as serious as Juan Diego's canonization, such "love for truth" was found to be groundless by the Vatican which had sufficient evidence to the contrary; including Infra-red evidence as published by Fr. Xavier Escalada in Enciclopedia Guadalupana".^[8]

Controversies

Eighteenth-century painting of God illustrating the Guadalupe

As early as 1556 Francisco de Bustamante, head of the Colony's Franciscans, delivered a sermon disparaging the holy origins of the picture:

"The devotion that has been growing in a chapel dedicated to Our Lady, called of Guadalupe, in this city is greatly harmful for the natives, because it makes them believe that the image painted by Marcos the Indian is in any way miraculous."^[9]

In 1611 the Dominican Martin de Leon, fourth viceroy of Mexico, denounced the cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe as a disguised worship of the Aztec goddess Tonantzin. The missionary and anthropologist Bernardino de Sahagún held the same opinion: he wrote that the shrine at Tepeyac was extremely popular but worrisome because people called the Virgin of Guadalupe Tonantzin. Sahagún said that the worshipers claimed that Tonantzin was the proper Nahuatl for "Mother of God"—but he disagreed, saying that "Mother of God" in Nahuatl would be "Dios y Nantzin."^[10]
In 2002, art restoration expert José Sol Rosales examined the icon with a stereomicroscope and identified calcium sulfate, pine soot, white, blue, and green "tierras" (soil), reds made from carmine and other pigments, as well as gold. Rosales said he found the work consistent with 16th century materials and methods.^[11]

Guadalupe of Extremadura

Norberto Rivera Carrera, Archbishop of Mexico, commissioned a 1999 study to test the tilma's age. The researcher, Leoncio Garza-Valdés, had previously worked with the Shroud of Turin. Upon inspection Garza-Valdés found three distinct layers in the painting, at least one of which was signed and dated. He also said that the original painting showed striking similarities to the original Lady of Guadalupe found in Extremadura Spain, and that the second painting showed another Virgin with indigenous features. Finally, Garza-Valdés indicated that the fabric on which the icon is painted is made of conventional hemp and linen, not agave fibers as is popularly believed.^[12] The photographs of these putative overpaintings were not available in the Garza-Valdés 2002 publication, however.^[13] Gilberto Aguirre. a San Antonio optometrist and colleague of Garza-Valdés who also took part in the 1999 study, examined the same photographs and stated that, while agreeing the painting had been tampered with, he disagreed with Garza-Valdes' conclusions. Gilberto Aguirre claims the conditions for conducting the study were inadequate. No control of the lighting and the fact that the painting was shot through an acrylic plate scientifically invalidates any results. He also questions Garza-Valdés' claim of ultraviolet light revealing two underlying images because according to Aguirre, ultraviolet light can't penetrate sub-surfaces. The team did take Infrared pictures but those didn't show additional images underneath the present one.^[14]
Similar Marian apparitions have been reported in many cities and towns throughout Mexico; in the Mexican town of Tlaltenango in the state of Morelos, a painting of Our Lady of Guadalupe is claimed to have miraculously appeared in the inside of a box that two unknown travelers left in a hostel. The owners of the hostel called the local priest after noticing enticing aromas of flowers and sandalwood coming out of the box. The image has been venerated on September 8 since its finding in 1720, and is accepted as valid apparition by the local Catholic authorities.^[15]
At least 300 apparitions of the Virgin Mary are reported in Mexico every year, many on burned toast and tortillas. In one of the most recent cases, believers reported a vision of the Virgin of Guadalupe in a humidity stain in the Mexico City metro. This apparition was called the "Virgin of the Subway."^[16]

Symbol of Mexico

Guadalupe's first major use as a nationalistic symbol was in the writing of Miguel Sánchez, the author of the first Spanish language apparition account. Sanchez identified Guadalupe as Revelation's Woman of the Apocalypse, and said that

"this New World has been won and conquered by the hand of the Virgin Mary...[who had] prepared, disposed, and contrived her exquisite likeness in this her Mexican land, which was conquered for such a glorious purpose, won that there should appear so Mexican an image."^[17]

In 1810 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the bid for Mexican independence with his ''Grito de Dolores,'' yelling words to the effect of "Death to the Spaniards and long live the Virgin of Guadalupe!" When Hidalgo's mestizo-indigenous army attacked Guanajuato and Valladolid, they placed "the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which was the insignia of their enterprise, on sticks or on reeds painted different colors" and "they all wore a print of the Virgin on their hats."^[18] Royalists responded by putting Guadalupe's image on the soles of their shoes.^[19]

Flag carried by Hidalgo and his insurgent army.

When Hidalgo died, leadership of the revolution fell to a mestizo priest named Jose Maria Morelos who led insurgent troops in the Mexican south. Morelos was also a Guadalupan partisan: he made the Virgin the seal of his Congress of Chilpancingo, stating

"New Spain puts less faith in its own efforts than in the power of God and the intercession of its Blessed Mother, who appeared within the precincts of Tepeyac as the miraculous image of Guadalupe that had come to comfort us, defend us, visibly be our protection."

He inscribed the Virgin's feast day, December 12, into the Chilpancingo constitution, and declared that Guadalupe was the power behind his military victories. One of Morelos' officers, a man named Felix Fernandez who would later become the first Mexican president, even changed his name to Guadalupe Victoria.
Simón Bolívar, noticed the Guadalupan theme in these uprisings, and shortly before Morelos' death in 1815 wrote:

"...the leaders of the independence struggle have put fanaticism to use by proclaiming the famous Virgin of Guadalupe as the queen of the patriots, praying to her in times of hardship and displaying her on their flags...the veneration for this image in Mexico far exceeds the greatest reverence that the shrewdest prophet might inspire."

In 1914, Emiliano Zapata's peasant army rose out of the south against the government of Porfirio Diaz. Though Zapata's rebel forces were primarily interested in land reform—"tierra y libertad" (land and liberty) was the slogan of the uprising—when Zapata's peasant troops penetrated Mexico City, they carried Guadalupan banners.^[20]
Nobel laureate Octavio Paz wrote in 1974 that "Mexican people, after more than two centuries of experiments, have faith only in the Virgin of Guadalupe and the National Lottery"^[21]
The Virgin of Guadalupe has also symbolized the Mexican nation since Mexico's War of Independence. Both Miguel Hidalgo and Emiliano Zapata's armies traveled underneath Guadalupan flags. The Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes once said that "...one may no longer consider himself a Christian, but you cannot truly be considered a Mexican unless you believe in the Virgin of Guadalupe."^[22]
More recently, the contemporary Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) named their "mobile city" in honor of the Virgin: it is called Guadalupe Tepeyac. EZLN spokesperson Subcomandante Marcos wrote a humorous letter in 1995 describing the EZLN bickering over what to do with a Guadalupe statue they had received as a gift.^[23]

Mestizo culture and Mexican identity

Guadalupe is often considered a mixture of the cultures which blend to form Mexico, both racially^[24] and religiously^[25] Guadalupe is sometimes called the "first mestiza"^[26] or "the first Mexican". In the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Mary O'Connor writes that Guadalupe "bring[s] together people of distinct cultural heritages, while at the same time affirming their distinctness."^[27]

Graffiti mural in Los Angeles showing Our Lady of Guadalupe in a nopal cactus.

One theory is that the Virgin of Guadalupe was presented to the Aztecs as a sort of "Christianized" Tonantzin, necessary for the clergymen to convert the Indians to their Faith. As Jacques Lafaye wrote in ''Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe'', "...as the Christians built their first churches with the rubble and the columns of the ancient pagan temples, so they often borrowed pagan customs for their own cult purposes."^[28] An alternate view is that Guadalupe-Tonantzin gave the native Americans a hidden method to continue worshipping their own goddess in a Christianized form; similar patterns of syncretic worship can be seen throughout the Catholic Americas (e.g. Vodun, Santería). Guadalupan religious syncretism is both lauded and disparaged as demonic.^[29]
Some theologians also associate the Virgin of Guadalupe with a special relationship between the indigenous peoples of the American continents and the Catholic Church. This perspective developed as the scriptural terms of truths "hid ... from the wise and prudent" but "revealed...unto babes" (Matthew 11:25), but later developed into the "spiritual mestizaje of the Americas",^[30] and the "option for the poor" provided by Liberation theology.
The author Judy King asserts that Guadalupe is a "common denominator" uniting Mexicans. Writing that Mexico is composed of a vast patchwork of differences—linguistic, ethnic, and class-based—King says "The Virgin of Guadalupe is the rubber band that binds this disparate nation into a whole."^[31]
This sentiment was echoed by two celebrants interviewed in the New York Times at the Virgin's feast day in 1998: "We say that we are more Guadalupanos than Mexicans," said the Jesuit Brother Joel Magallan. "We say that because our Lady Guadalupe is our symbol, our identity." David Solanas, another feast-goer, agreed, saying "We have faith in her. She's like the mama of all the Mexicans."^[32]
The origin of the name "Guadalupe" is controversial. According to a sixteenth-century report the Virgin identified herself as Guadalupe when she appeared to Juan Diego's uncle, Juan Bernardino.^[33] It has also been suggested that "Guadalupe" is a corruption of a Nahuatl name "Coatlaxopeuh", which has been translated as "Who Crushes the Serpent.^[34] In this interpretation, the serpent referred to is Quetzalcoatl, one of the chief Aztec gods, whom the Virgin Mary "crushed" by inspiring the conversion of indigenous people to Catholicism. However, many historians believe that the 1533 Guadalupan shrine was dedicated to the Spanish Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura—not to the Mexican Virgin venerated today. Thus, while the name "Guadalupe" would have had certain connotations to Nahuatl speakers, as noted above, its ultimate origins would be the Arabic-Latin term "Wadī Lupum", meaning "Valley of the Wolf".
''María Guadalupe,'' or just ''Lupe,'' is a common female and male name among Mexican people or those with Mexican heritage.

Religious theories regarding the image

Artistic symbolism

The image of Our Lady of Guadalupe is often read as a coded image. Miguel Sanchez, the author of the 1648 tract ''Imagen de la Virgen María'', described the Virgin's image as the Woman of the Apocalypse from the New Testament's Revelation 12:1: "arrayed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars." Mateo de la Cruz, writing twelve years after Sánchez, "argued that the Guadalupe possessed all the iconographical attributes of Mary in her Immaculate Conception". Likewise, a 1738 sermon preached by Miguel Picazo argued that the Guadalupe was the "best representation" of the Immaculate Conception.

Virgin in a maguey.

Many writers, including Patricia Harrington and Virgil Elizondo, describe the image as containing coded messages for the indigenous people of Mexico.^[35]

"The Aztecs...had an elaborate, coherent symbolic system for making sense of their lives. When this was destroyed by the Spaniards, something new was needed to fill the void and make sense of New Spain...the image of Guadalupe served that purpose."^[36]

Her blue-green mantle was described as the color once reserved for the divine couple Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl;^[37] her belt is read as a sign of pregnancy; and a cross-shaped image symbolizing the cosmos and called ''nahui-ollin'' is said to be inscribed beneath the image's sash.^[38]
Yet another interpretation of the image is offered by the historian William B. Taylor, who recounted that Guadalupe has also been "acclaimed goddess of the maguey [agave]" and pulque was drunk on her feast day. A 1772 report described the rays of light around Guadalupe as maguey spines.^[39][40]

Alleged miraculous properties

Some consider it miraculous that the tilma maintains its structural integrity after nearly 500 years, since replicas made with the same type of materials lasted only about 15 years before disintegrating.^[41] In addition to withstanding the elements, the tilma resisted a 1791 ammonia spill that made a considerable hole, which was reportedly repaired in two weeks with no external help. In 1921, an anarchist placed an offering of flowers next to the image. A bomb hidden within the flowers exploded and destroyed the shrine. However, the image suffered no damage.^[42][43]

Image somewhat resembling a bearded man found in the Virgin's eye.

Photographers and ophthalmologists have reported images reflected in the eyes of the Virgin.^[44][45] In 1929 and 1951 photographers found a figure reflected in the Virgin's eyes; upon inspection they said that the reflection was tripled in what is called the Purkinje effect. This effect is commonly found in human eyes. The ophthalmologist Dr. Jose Aston Tonsmann later enlarged the image of the Virgin's eyes by 2500x magnification and said he saw not only the aforementioned single figure, but rather images of all the witnesses present when the tilma was shown to the Bishop in 1531. Tonsmann also reported seeing a small family—mother, father, and a group of children—in the center of the Virgin's eyes.
In response to the eye miracles, Joe Nickell and John F. Fischer wrote in ''Skeptical Inquirer'' that images seen in the Virgin's eyes could be the result of the human tendency to form familiar shapes from random patterns, much like a psychologist's inkblots—a phenomenon known as religious pareidolia.^[46]
Richard Kuhn, who received the 1938 Nobel Chemistry prize, is said to have analyzed a sample of the fabric in 1936 and said the tint on the fabric was not from a known mineral, vegetable, or animal source.
In 1979 Philip Serna Callahan studied the icon with infrared light and stated that portions of the face, hands, robe, and mantle had been painted in one step, with no sketches or corrections and no paintbrush strokes.^[47]

Catholic devotions

A mosaic of Our Lady of Guadalupe at the Mary, Queen of the Universe Shrine in Florida.

With the Brief ''Non est equidem'' of May 25 1754, Pope Benedict XIV declared Our Lady of Guadalupe patron of what was then called New Spain, corresponding to Spanish Central and Northern America, and approved liturgical texts for the Mass and Liturgy of the Hours in her honour. Pope Leo XIII granted new texts in 1891 and authorized coronation of the image in 1895. Pope Saint Pius X proclaimed her patron of Latin America in 1910. In 1935 Pope Pius XI proclaimed her patron of the Philippines and had a monument in her honor erected in the Vatican Gardens. In 1966 Pope Paul VI sent a Golden Rose to the shrine.^[48]
Pope John Paul II visited the shrine in the course of his first journey outside Italy as Pope from 26 to January 31 1979, and again when he beatified Juan Diego there on 6 May 1990. In 1992 he dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe a chapel within St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. At the request of the Special Assembly for the Americas of the Synod of Bishops, he named Our Lady of Guadalupe patron of the Americas on January 22 1999 (with the result that her liturgical celebration had, throughout the Americas, the rank of Solemnity), and visited the shrine again on the following day. On July 31 2002, he canonized Juan Diego, and later that year included in the General Calendar of the Roman Rite, as optional memorials, the liturgical celebrations of Saint Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin (December 9) and Our Lady of Guadalupe (12 December).
Replicas of the tilma can be found in thousands of churches throughout the world, including Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris and the Basilica of Saint Peter in Rome, and numerous parishes bear her name.

Buildings for Guadalupan devotion

Inside the Basilica of Guadalupe in Monterrey, Mexico.

★ The Basilica of Guadalupe, a church in Mexico City

★ The Basílica of Guadalupe in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

★ The Cathedral Santuario de Guadalupe in Dallas, Texas.

Further reading

★ Marian library's discussion of Guadalupe as Mexican national symbol

★ BBC photo essay of 12 December festivities in San Miguel de Allende, Gto.

★ Photo essay on Los Angeles Latino community's Guadalupan murals, altars and statues.

★ The Catholic Encyclopedia

★ A Catholic site dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe

★ Brief YouTube clip showing the inside of the Basilica

★ Extensive historial sourcing for the apparition account. From L'Osservatore Romano

★ Archive of Guadalupan documents maintained by Xavier Escalada, the finder of the Codex Escalada

★ Official website of the Basilica

★ Critical essays, iconography and documentary information about the Guadalupe

★ Mínima Bilbliografía el Guadalupanismo

★ Vera, Rodrigo. "Demanda a cardenal por venta fraudulenta." Originally from Proceso magazine. [27], accessed 29 November 2006.

References

Books

★ Brading, D.A. ''Mexican Phoenix. Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

★ Elizondo, Virgil. ''Guadalupe. Mother of a New Creation.'' Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1997.

★ Krauze, Enrique. ''Mexico, Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico 1810-1996.'' New York:HarperCollins, 1997.

★ Lafaye, Jacques. ''Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe. The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness 1531-1813.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.

★ Poole, Stafford. ''Our Lady of Guadalupe. The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol, 1531-1797.'' Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997.

★ Sousa, Lisa, et al, eds. ''The Story of Guadalupe. Luis Laso de la Vega's 'Huei tlamahuicoltica' of 1649.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998.

★ Taylor, William B. ''Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages.'' Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1979.

★ Ernesto de la Torre Villar, y Ramiro Navarro de Anda. "Testimonios Históricos Guadalupanos." Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1982

★ de Guerrero Osio y Rivas Luis. "No Se Puede Tapar el Sol con un Dedo", 1999. México D.F.

★ Xavier Escalada. "Enciclopedia Guadalupana", México D.F.

★ Mariano Cuevas, S.J. "Album Histórico Guadalupano del IV Centenario", 1930. México D.F.

★ Guerrero Rosado, José L.: "El Nican Mopohua"; "Los dos mundos de un indio santo"; "El Manto de Juan Diego".

★ León-Portilla, Miguel. "Tonanzin Guadalupe", Fondo de Cultura Económica 2000, México D.F.

Websites

★ Ashburne, Elyse. "Catholic relic's authenticity questioned by researcher." ''Daily Texan.'' June 4, 2002. [28], accessed 5 December 2006

★ Goeringer, Conrad. "Virgin of Guadalupe a Fraud, Says Abbot." [29], accessed 9 July 2007

★ Beckwith, Barbara. "A View From the North." St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online. December 1999. [30], accessed 3 December 2006

★ Conchiglia. "Movimento d'Amore San Juan Diego dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe", October 24 2001. [31] accessed 06 March 2007

★ Daily Catholic. December 7, 1999. [32]

★ Elizondo, Virgil. "Our Lady of Guadalupe. A Guide for the New Millennium." St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online. December 1999. [33], accessed 3 December 2006

★ Fray Bernaerdino de Sagahun y el culto de Guadalupe." Proyecto Guadalupano [www.proyectoguadalupe.com/documentos/sahagun.html], accessed 1 December 2006

★ Garduño, Thalia Ehrlich. "Virgen de Tlaltenango." mariologia.org[34], accessed 29 November 200

★ Guerra, Giulio Dante. "La Madonna di Guadalupe. 'Inculturazione' Miracolosa." Cristianità. n. 205-206, 1992. [35], accessed 1 December 2006

★ King, Judy. "La Virgen de Guadalupe—Mother of All Mexico." [36], accessed 29 November 2006

★ La Virgen de Guadalupe," panam.edu [37], accessed 30 November 2006

★ "Los Ojos de Guadalupe: Un misterio para la ciencia." fluvium.org [38], accessed 30 November 2006

★ Mendoza, Rubi. "Coatlaxopeuh or Guadalupe?" xispas.com [39], accessed 3 December 2006

★ Nickell, Joe. "'Miraculous' Image of Guadalupe." Skeptical Briefs, June 2002. [40] accessed 29 November 2006.

★ Our Lady of Guadalupe." catholic.org [41], accessed 30 November 2006

★ "Our Lady of Guadalupe." livingmiracles.net [42], accessed 30 November 2006

★ "Our Lady of Guadalupe. Historical sources." L'Osservatore Romano. 23 January 2002, page 8.[43]

★ Scheifler, Michael. "The Aztec Goddess Tonantzin and the Feast of Guadalupe." Bible Light Homepage. [44], accessed 3 December 2006

★ Subcomandante Marcos, "Zapatistas Guadalupanos and the Virgin of Guadalupe." 24 March 1995 [45], accessed 11 December 2006

★ "The Eyes." Interlupe. [46], accessed 3 December

★ The Image." Interlupe. [47], accessed 3 December 2006

★ "The Lady of Guadalupe. An Invented Myth or a Strange Reality?" laermita.org [48], accessed 30 November 2006

★ "Why the name 'of Guadalupe'?" sancta.org [49], accessed 30 November 2006

★ Sennott, Br. Thomas Mary. "The Tilma of Guadalupe: A Scientific Analysis." [50], accessed 3 December 2006 (.pdf)

★ Vera, Rodrigo. "La Guadalupana, tres imagenes en uno." Proceso, May 25 2002. [51], accessed 29 November 2006

★ Zwick, Mark and Louise. "Why San Juan Diego, a Saint for Nobodies, Means So Much to the Houston Catholic Worker." Houston Catholic Worker newspaper, September-October 2002[52]

★ De Guerrero Osio, Luis "Mandatory Images" An Image to Decipher the World, the Powerful Convergences on Guadalupe in Geography, Holy Scripture, Discovery of America, and the Stars in the Heavens. [53]

Periodicals

★ Bushnell, John. "La Virgen de Guadalupe as Surrogate Mother in San Juan Aztingo." American Anthropologist: Vol 60, Number 2, p. 261. 1958

★ "Divided By an Apparition." New York Times. September 5, 1896; p. 3

★ Herszenhorn, David M. "Mexicans Unite to Honor Their Spiritual Mother." December 13, 1998, New York Times, Section 1, Page 51.

★ Lopez, Lydia. "'Undocumented Virgin.' Guadalupe Narrative Crosses Borders for New Understanding." Episcopal News Service. December 10, 2004.

★ Notitiae, bulletin of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, 2002, p. 194-195

★ O'Connor, Mary. "The Virgin of Guadalupe and the Economics of Symbolic Behavior." The Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. Vol. 28, Issue 2. p. 105-119. 1989

★ Peterson, Jeannette Favot. "The Virgin of Guadalupe. Symbol of Conquest or Liberation?" Art Journal. Vol. 51, Issue 4, p. 39. 1992

Footnotes

1. José L. Guerrero Rosado "El Manto de Juan Diego", & others
2. "Our Lady of Guadalupe. Historical sources." L'Osservatore Romano. 23 January 2002, page 8
3. Poole, Stafford. Our Lady of Guadalupe. The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol, 1531-1797. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1995.
4. Daily Catholic. December 7, 1999. [1], accessed November 30, 2006
5. Schulenburg was not the first to disbelieve the traditional account nor the first Catholic prelate to resign his post after questioning the Guadalupe story. In 1897 Eduardo Sanchez Camacho, the Bishop of Tamaulipas was forced to leave his post after expressing similar disbelief. "Divided by an Apparition." New York Times. September 5, 1896; p. 3. However, Bishop Camacho's objections —based on García Icazbalceta's arguments— were taken up immediately by Fr. Agustín de la Rosa in his "Defensa de la aparición de Ntra. Sra. de Guadalupe" (1896)
6. Ernesto de la Torre Villar, y Ramiro Navarro de Anda. "Testimonios Históricos Guadalupanos." Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1982
7. "Juan de Zumarraga." Catholic Encyclopedia. [2], accessed 11 December 2006
8. http://g-infrared.blogspot.com
9. "Marcos" may have referred to the Aztec painter Marcos Cipac de Aquino, who was active in Mexico when the icon appeared.
10. "Fray Bernaerdino de Sagahun y el culto de Guadalupe." Proyecto Guadalupano [3], accessed 1 December 2006
11. Vera, Rodrigo. "La Guadalupana, tres imagenes en uno." ''Proceso'', May 25 2002. [4], accessed 29 November 2006
12. Vera, Rodrigo. "La Guadalupana: tres imagenes en una." ''Proceso.'' 25 May 2002. [5], accessed 5 December 2006
13. Peterson, Jeannette Favot. "The Virgin of Guadalupe. Symbol of Conquest or Liberation?" Art Journal. Vol. 51, Issue 4, p. 39. 1992
14. Ashburne, Elyse. "Catholic relic's authenticity questioned by researcher." ''Daily Texan.'' June 4, 2002. [6], accessed 5 December 2006]
15. Garduño, Thalia Ehrlich. "Virgen de Tlaltenango." [7], accessed 29 November 2006.
16. Monsivais, Carlos. "Estampas al borde de la piedad." El Universal.com.mx [8], accessed 11 December 2006
17. Brading, D.A. Mexican Phoenix. Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2001.
18. Krauze, Enrique. Mexico, Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico 1810-1996. HarperCollins: New York, 1997.
19. Peterson, Jeannette Favot. "The Virgin of Guadalupe. Symbol of Conquest or Liberation?" ''Art Journal.'' Vol. 51, Issue 4, p. 39. 1992
20. Documentary footage of Zapata and Pancho Villa's armies entering Mexico City can be seen here [9]—Zapata's men can be seen carrying the flag of the Guadalupana about 38 seconds in.
21. Paz, Octavio. Introduction to Jacques Lafaye's ''Quetzalcalcoatl and Guadalupe. The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness 1531-1813.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976
22. Demarest, Donald. "Guadalupe Cult...In the Lives of Mexicans." p. 114 in ''A Handbook on Guadalupe'', Franciscan Friars of the Immaculate, eds. Waite Park MN: Park Press Inc, 1996
23. Subcomandante Marcos, "Zapatistas Guadalupanos and the Virgin of Guadalupe." 24 March 1995 [10], accessed 11 December 2006
24. Beckwith, Barbara. "A View From the North." St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online. December 1999. [11], accessed 3 December 2006
25. Elizondo, Virgil. "Our Lady of Guadalupe. A Guide for the New Millennium." St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online. December 1999. [12], accessed 3 December 2006
26. Lopez, Lydia. "'Undocumented Virgin.' Guadalupe Narrative Crosses Borders for New Understanding." Episcopal News Service. December 10, 2004.
27. O'Connor, Mary. "The Virgin of Guadalupe and the Economics of Symbolic Behavior." ''The Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.'' Vol. 28, Issue 2. p. 105-119. 1989
28. Lafaye, Jacques. ''Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe. The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1976
29. Scheifler, Michael. "The Aztec Goddess Tonantzin and the Feast of Guadalupe." Bible Light Homepage. [13], accessed 3 December 2006
30. Elizondo, Virgil. ''Guadalupe, Mother of a New Creation.'' Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1997
31. King, Judy. "La Virgen de Guadalupe—Mother of All Mexico." [14], accessed 29 November 2006
32. Herszenhorn, David M. "Mexicans Unite to Honor Their Spiritual Mother." December 13, 1998, New York Times, Section 1, Page 51.
33. "Why the name 'of Guadalupe'?" sancta.org [15], accessed 30 November 2006
34. Mendoza, Rubi. "Coatlaxopeuh or Guadalupe?" xispas.com [16]
35. "The Image." [17], accessed 3 December 2006
36. Harrington, Patricia. "Mother of Death, Mother of Rebirth: The Virgin of Guadalupe." ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion.'' Vol. 56, Issue 1, p. 25-50. 1988
37. "La Virgen de Guadalupe," panam.edu [18], accessed 30 November 2006
38. "The Lady of Guadalupe. An Invented Myth or a Strange Reality?" laermita.org[19], accessed 30 November 2006
39. Taylor, William B. Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages. Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1979.
40. Bushnell, John. "La Virgen de Guadalupe as Surrogate Mother in San Juan Aztingo." American Anthropologist: Vol 60, Number 2, p. 261. 1958
41. Guerra, Giulio Dante. "La Madonna di Guadalupe. 'Inculturazione' Miracolosa." Christianita. n. 205-206, 1992. [20], accessed 1 December 2006
42. "Our Lady of Guadalupe" livingmiracles.net [21], accessed 30 November 2006
43. "Our Lady of Guadalupe" catholic.org [22], accessed 30 November 2006
44. "The Eyes." Interlupe. [23], accessed 3 December
45. "Los Ojos de Guadalupe: Un misterio para la ciencia." fluvium.org, accessed 30 November 2006 [24]
46. Nickell, Joe. "'Miraculous' Image of Guadalupe." Skeptical Briefs, June 2002. [25] accessed 29 November 2006.
47. Sennott, Br. Thomas Mary. "The Tilma of Guadalupe: A Scientific Analysis." [26]
48. Notitiae, bulletin of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, 2002, pages 194-195