'Fr. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, S.J.' (;
May 1,
1881 –
April 10,
1955) was a
French Jesuit priest trained as a
paleontologist and a
philosopher, and was present at the discovery of
Peking Man. Teilhard conceived such ideas as the
Omega Point and the
Noosphere.
Teilhard's primary book, ''The Phenomenon of Man'', set forth a sweeping account of the unfolding of the
cosmos. He abandoned traditional interpretations of creation in the Book of
Genesis in favor of a less strict interpretation. This displeased certain officials in the
Roman Curia, who thought that it undermined the doctrine of
original sin developed by
Saint Augustine. Teilhard's position was opposed by his church superiors, and his work was denied publication during his lifetime by the Roman
Holy Office. Pope
John XXIII rehabilitated him posthumously, and, since then, his works have been considered an important influence on contemporary church's stance on
evolution.
Biography
Early years
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was born in
Orcines, close to
Clermont-Ferrand, in
France on May 1, 1881. "de Chardin" is a vestige of a French aristocratic title and not properly his last name. He was formally known as "Pierre Teilhard", which is the name on his headstone in the Jesuit cemetery in
Hyde Park, New York.
[1] He was the fourth child of a large family. His father, an amateur naturalist, collected stones, insects and plants, and promoted the observation of nature in the household. Teilhard's spirituality was awakened by his mother. When he was 11, he went to the Jesuit college of Mongré, in
Villefranche-sur-Saône, where he completed baccalaureates of philosophy and mathematics. Then, in
1899, he entered the Jesuit novitiate at
Aix-en-Provence where he began a philosophical, theological and spiritual career.
As of the summer
1901, the
Waldeck-Rousseau laws, which submitted congregational associations' properties to state control, forced the Jesuits into exile in the
United Kingdom. The young Jesuit students had to continue their studies in
Jersey. In the meantime, Teilhard earned a licentiate of literature in
Caen in
1902.
Jesuit training
From
1905 to
1908, he taught
physics and
chemistry in
Cairo,
Egypt, at the
Jesuit College of the Holy Family. He wrote "...it is the dazzling of the East foreseen and drunk greedily... in its lights, its vegetation, its fauna and its deserts." (''Letters from Egypt'' (1905–1908) — ''Éditions Aubier'')
Teilhard studied theology in
Hastings, in
Sussex (United Kingdom), from
1908 to
1912. There he synthesized his scientific, philosophical and theological knowledge in the light of evolution. His reading of ''l'Évolution Créatrice'' (Creative Evolution) by
Henri Bergson was, he said, the "catalyst of a fire which devoured already its heart and its spirit." His views on evolution and religion particularly inspired the evolutionary biologist
Theodosius Dobzhansky, who wrote the essay, "
Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution" (''The American Biology Teacher'' 35 [March 1973]: 125-129). Teilhard was ordained a priest on
August 24,
1911, aged 30.
Paleontology
From
1912 to
1914, Teilhard worked in the paleontology laboratory of the ''
Musée National d'Histoire Naturelle'', in
Paris, studying the
mammals of the middle
Tertiary sector. Later he studied in
Europe. Professor
Marcellin Boulle, specialist in
Neanderthal studies, gradually guided him towards human
paleontology. At the Institute of Human Paleontology, he became a friend of
Henri Breuil and took part with him, in
1913, in excavations in the prehistoric painted caves in the northwest of
Spain, at the
Cave of Castillo.
War service
Mobilised in December
1914, Teilhard served in
World War I as a stretcher-bearer in the 8th regiment of
Moroccan riflemen. For his valour, he received several citations including the ''Médaille Militaire'' and the
Legion of Honor.
Throughout these years of war he developed his reflections in his diaries and in letters to his cousin, Marguerite Teillard-Chambon, who later edited them into a book: ''Genèse d'une pensée'' (''Genesis of a thought''). He confessed later: "...the war was a meeting ... with the Absolute." In
1916, he wrote his first essay: ''La Vie Cosmique'' (''Cosmic life''), where his scientific and philosophical thought was revealed just as his mystical life. He pronounced his solemn wish to become a Jesuit in
Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, on
May 26,
1918, during a leave. In August
1919, in Jersey, he would write ''Puissance spirituelle de la Matière'' (''the spiritual Power of Matter''). The complete essays written between
1916 and
1919 are published under the following titles:
★ ''Ecrits du temps de la Guerre'' (''Written in time of the War'') (TXII of complete Works) – ''Editions du Seuil''
★ ''Genèse d'une pensée'' (letters of
1914 to
1918) – ''Editions Grasset''
Teilhard followed at the
Sorbonne three unit degrees of natural science:
geology,
botany and
zoology. His thesis treated of the mammals of the French lower
Eocene and their stratigraphy. After
1920, he lectured in geology at the Catholic Institute of Paris, then became an assistant professor after being granted a science Doctorate in
1922.
China
In
1923 he traveled to
China with Father
Emile Licent, who was in charge in
Tianjin for a significant laboratory collaborating with the Natural history museum in Paris and the Marcellin Boule laboratory. Licent carried out considerable basic work in connection with
missionaries who accumulated observations of a scientific nature in their spare time. He was known as 德日進 in China.
Teilhard wrote several essays, including ''La Messe sur le Monde'' (the ''Mass on the World''), in the
Ordos Desert. In the following year he continued lecturing at the Catholic Institute and participated in a cycle of conferences for the students of the Engineers' Schools. Two theological essays on "original sin" sent to a theologian, on his request, on a purely personal basis, were wrongly understood.
★ July
1920: ''Chute, Rédemption et Géocentrie'' (''Fall, Redemption and Geocentry'')
★ Spring
1922: ''Notes sur quelques représentations historiques possibles du Péché originel'' (''Notes on few possible historical representations of
original sin'') (Works, Tome X)
The church hierarchy required him to give up his lecturing at the Catholic Institute and to continue his geological research in China.
Teilhard travelled again to China in April
1926. He would remain there more or less twenty years, with many voyages throughout the world. He settled until
1932 in Tientsin with Emile Licent then in
Beijing. From
1926 to
1935, Teilhard made five geological research expeditions in China. They enabled him to establish a first general geological map of China.
In
1926–
1927 after a missed campaign in
Gansu he travelled in the
Sang-Kan-Ho valley near Kalgan (
Zhangjiakou) and made a tour in Eastern
Mongolia. He wrote ''Le Milieu Divin'' (''the divine Medium''). Teilhard prepared the first pages of his main work ''Le Phénomène humain'' (''The Human Phenomenon'').
As an Advisor to the Chinese national geological service, he supervised the geology and the paleontology of the excavations of Choukoutien (
Zhoukoudian) near Beijing. In December
1929 he took part in the discovery of ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'', or
Peking Man. He resided in
Manchuria with Emile Licent, then stayed in Western Shansi (
Shanxi) and northern Shensi (
Shaanxi) with the Chinese paleontologist
C. C. Young and with
Davidson Black, Chairman of the
Geological Survey of China.
After a tour in Manchuria in the area of
Great Khingan with Chinese geologists, Teilhard joined the team of American Expedition Center-Asia in the
Gobi organised in June and July, by the American Museum of Natural History with
Roy Chapman Andrews.
Henri Breuil and Teilhard discovered that the ''Peking Man'', the nearest relative of ''
Pithecanthropus'' from
Java, was a "''faber''" (worker of stones and controller of fire). Teilhard wrote ''L'Esprit de la Terre'' (''the Spirit of the Earth'').
Teilhard took part as a scientist in the famous "
Yellow Cruise" in
Central Asia. He joined in the northwest of Beijing in Kalgan the China group who joined the second part of the team, the
Pamir group, in
Aksu. He remained with his colleagues for several months in
Urumqi, capital of
Sinkiang. The following year the
Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) began.
Teilhard undertook several explorations in the south of China. He traveled in the valleys of
Yangtze River and Szechuan (
Sichuan) in
1934, then, the following year, in
Kwang-If and
Guangdong. The relationship with
Marcellin Boule was disrupted; the Museum cut its financing on the grounds that Teilhard worked more for the Chinese Geological Service than for the Museum.
During all these years, Teilhard strongly contributed to the constitution of an international network of research in human Paleontology related to the whole Eastern and south Eastern zone of the Asian continent. He would be particularly associated in this task with two friends, the English/Canadian
Davidson Black and the Scot
George B. Barbour. Many times he would visit France or the
United States, only to leave these countries to go on further expeditions.
From
1927–
1928 Teilhard stayed in France, based in Paris. He journeyed to
Leuven,
Belgium, to
Cantal, and to
Ariège, France. Between several articles in reviews, he met new people such as
Paul Valery and
Bruno de Solages, who were to help him in issues with the
Catholic Church.
Answering an invitation from
Henry de Monfreid, Teilhard undertook a journey of two months in
Obock in
Harrar and in
Somalia with his colleague
Pierre Lamarre, geologist, before embarking in
Djibouti to return to
Tianjin.
"Monfreid and I, we did not have anything any more European", joked Teilhard. "Once we dropped anchor, at night, along the
basaltic cliffs where the incense grew. The men were going by dugout to fish odd fishes within the
corals. One day,
Hissas sold us a kid
goat with camel milk. The crew took this opportunity "to dedicate" the ship. The old reheated Negro who served Monfreid in his whole adventures dyed with blood the rudder, the mast, the front part of the ship, then, later in the night, it was the song of the
Qur'an in the medium of thick
incense smoke." While in China, Teilhard developed a deep and personal friendship with
Lucile Swan.
World travels
From
1930–
1931 Teilhard stayed in France and in the United States. During a conference in Paris, Teilhard stated: "For the observers of the Future, the greatest event will be the sudden appearance of a collective humane conscience and a human work to make."
From
1932–
1933 he began to meet people to clarify issues with the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, regarding ''Le Milieu Divin'' and ''L'Esprit de la Terre''. He met
Helmut von Terra, a
German geologist in the International Geology Congress in
Washington, DC. A few months later
Davidson Black died.
Teilhard participated in the
1935 Yale–
Cambridge expedition in northern and central India with the geologist
Helmut von Terra and Patterson, who verified their assumptions on
Indian Paleolithic civilisations in
Kashmir and the
Salt Range Valley.
He then made a short stay in
Java, on the invitation of Professor
Ralph van Koningsveld to the site of Java man. A second
cranium, more complete, was discovered. This
Dutch paleontologist had found (in 1933) a tooth in a Chinese
apothecary shop in 1934 that he believed belonged to a giant tall
ape that lived around half a million years ago.
In
1937 Teilhard wrote ''Le Phénomène spirituel'' (''the spiritual Phenomenon'') on board the boat ''the Empress of Japan'', where he met the
Rajah of
Sarawak. The ship conveyed him to the United States. He received the
Mendel medal granted by
Villanova University during the Congress of
Philadelphia in recognition of his works on human paleontology. He made a speech about
evolution, origins and the destiny of Man. The ''
New York Times'' dated
March 19,
1937 presented Teilhard as the Jesuit who held that the man descended from monkeys. Some days later, he was to be granted ''Doctor honoris causa'' of the
Catholic University of Boston. When coming to the meeting, he was told that the distinction had been cancelled.
He then stayed in France, where he was immobilized by
malaria. During his return voyage in Beijing he wrote ''L'Energie spirituelle de la Souffrance'' (''Spiritual Energy of Suffering'') (Complete Works, tome VII).
Death
Teilhard died on
April 10,
1955 in
New York City, where he was in residence at the Jesuit church of
St Ignatius of Loyola,
Park Avenue. He was buried in the cemetery for the New York Province of the Jesuits at the Jesuit novitiate, St. Andrew's-on-the-Hudson in
Poughkeepsie,
upstate New York. In
1970 the novitiate was moved to
Syracuse, New York (on the grounds of
LeMoyne College) and the
Culinary Institute of America bought the old property, opening their school there a few years later. However, the cemetery remains on the grounds. A few days before his death Teilhard said "If in my life I haven't been wrong, I beg God to allow me to die on
Easter Sunday".
April 10 was Easter Sunday.
Controversy with Church officials
In
1925, Teilhard was ordered by the Jesuit Superior General
Vladimir Ledochowski to leave his teaching position in France and to sign a statement withdrawing his controversial statements regarding the doctrine of original sin. Rather than leave the Jesuit order, Teilhard signed the statement and left for China.
This was the first of a series of condemnations by certain church officials that would continue until long after Teilhard's death. The climax of these condemnations was a
1962 monitum of the
Holy Office denouncing his works. From the monitum: "The above-mentioned works abound in such ambiguities and indeed even serious errors, as to offend Catholic doctrine... For this reason, the most eminent and most revered Fathers of the Holy Office exhort all Ordinaries as well as the superiors of Religious institutes, rectors of seminaries and presidents of universities, effectively to protect the minds, particularly of the youth, against the dangers presented by the works of Fr. Teilhard de Chardin and of his followers."
Teilhard's writings, though, continued to circulate — not publicly, as he and the Jesuits observed their commitments to obedience, but in mimeographs that were circulated only privately, within the Jesuits, among theologians and scholars for discussion, debate and criticism.
As time passed, it seemed that the works of Teilhard were gradually returning to favor in the church, but the
Holy See in
1981 clarified that recent statements by members of the church, in particular those made on the hundredth anniversary of Teilhard's birth, were not to be interpreted as a revision of previous stands taken by the church officials. Thus the 1962 statement remains official church policy to this day.
Teachings
In his posthumously published book, ''The Phenomenon of Man'', Teilhard writes of the unfolding of the material cosmos, from the creation to the development of the
noosphere in the present, to his vision of the
Omega Point in the future. He was a leading proponent of
orthogenesis, the idea that
evolution occurs in a directional, goal driven way. To Teilhard,
evolution unfolded from cell to organism to planet to solar system and whole-universe (see
Gaia theory). Such theories are generally termed
teleological views of evolution. While these theories postulate a goal to the process of evolution, they should not be confused with the teleological implications of a theory like
intelligent design. Standard orthogenesis does not hold that evolutionary processes cannot of themselves account for
complexity.
Controversies about his line of thought centre on the question of whether or not the mission started by Christ was completed with his crucifixion, or whether mankind is meant to advance Christ's mission via the evolutionary process. Some theologians see an unbridgeable gulf between the traditional teaching that mankind was redeemed by a single act of divine intercession - mediated by the sacraments of the Catholic Church - and the notion that mankind might perfect itself by degrees, and over a long period of time. Holding with the latter, Teilhard proposed that the culmination of human history in the Omega point would represent actual Christogenesis. He said "A religion which is supposed to be inferior to our ideal as mankind, whatever the miracles surrounding it, is a Lost Religion."
There is no doubt that ''The Phenomenon of Man'' represents Teilhard's attempt at reconciling his religious
faith with his academic interests as a
paleontologist.
[2] One particularly poignant observation in Teilhard's book entails the notion that
evolution is becoming an increasingly optional
process.
[2] Teilhard points to the societal problems of
isolation and
marginalization as huge
inhibitors of evolution, especially since evolution requires a
unification of
consciousness. He states that "no evolutionary future awaits anyone except in association with everyone else."
[2] This statement can effectively be seen as Teilhard's demand for unity insofar as the human condition necessitates it. He also states that "evolution is an ascent toward consciousness," and therefore, signifies a continuous upsurge toward the
Omega Point, which for all intents and purposes, is
God.
[2]Our century is probably more religious than any other. How could it fail to be, with such problems to be solved? The only trouble is that it has not yet found a God it can adore.[2]
Teilhard in popular culture
★ American cultural historian and spiritual writer
Walter J. Ong, S.J., was one of the first to publicize Teilhard's thought, in "The Mechanical Bride: Christen the Folklore of Industrial Man," ''Social Order'' 2.2 (1952): 79-85, esp. 84; ''Frontiers in American Catholicism'' (1957); ''American Catholic Crossroads'' (1959); ''The Barbarian Within'' (1962); ''In the Human Grain'' (1967); ''The Presence of the Word: Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History'' (1967), the 1964 Terry Lectures at Yale University; ''Rhetoric, Romance, and Technology'' (1971); ''Interfaces of the Word'' (1977); ''Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality, and Consciousness'' (1981), the 1979 Messenger Lectures at Cornell University; and ''Hopkins, the Self, and God'' (1986), ''Faith and Contexts'', 4 vols. (1992–1999).
★ The French painter Alfred Manessier painted "L'Offrande de la terre ou Hommage à Teilhard de Chardin" in 1961–1962.
★ Novelist
Morris West based the character Jean Telemond in the 1963 novel ''
The Shoes of the Fisherman'' on Teilhard.
★ Teilhard de Chardin's statement that "
Everything That Rises Must Converge" was used as the title for a 1965 short story and book by Southern writer and Catholic thinker
Flannery O'Connor. This statement was also used as the title and basis of a song by the group
Shriekback off of their 1985 album ''
Oil & Gold''.
★
Edmund Rubbra's 1968 Symphony No. 8 by is titled ''Hommage a Teilhard de Chardin'', in honor of his spiritual and philosophical writings which inspired the composer.
★ Teilhard de Chardin has been cited by ''The Exorcist'' author
William Peter Blatty as the inspiration for Father Lankester Merrin, which is evident in the description of his writing contained in the novel. In the 1973
motion picture, a large photograph of Teilhard can be seen in the background in the living quarters of one of the Jesuit priests. Fr. Merrin was played by
Max Von Sydow in the movie.
★ One of the characters in 1977's ''
A Scanner Darkly'' by
Philip K. Dick quotes from Teilhard de Chardin whilst doing mechanical work on a car.
★ Teilhard de Chardin was suggested in
Stephen J. Gould's 1980 book '' to have been a participant in the
Piltdown Man hoax. He did work on the dig at the site in 1913 at which the fraudulent items were "discovered," but the allegation of Teilhard's participation in this has been discredited by a number of historians.
★
Jean Houston, past president of the Association of Humanistic Psychology and former spiritual director to
Hillary Clinton, culminates her book ''Life-Force: The Psycho-Historical Recovery of the Self'' (1980: 218-20) by recounting her extended encounter with Teilhard when she was 13 years old, which she further elaborates in her autobiography ''A Mythic Life: Learning to Live Our Greater Story'' (1996: 142-48).
★ The work of Teilhard de Chardin, among others, has been controversially cited as the inspiration for
James Redfield's 1993 novel ''
The Celestine Prophecy''.
★ Novelist
Julian May references Teilhard's work in the novels in her 1987–94
Galactic Milieu Series where it is the basis for the galactic consciousness that serves as the political and ethical background for the novels.
★ In
Dan Simmons' 1989–97 ''
Hyperion Cantos'', Teilhard de Chardin has been canonized a
saint in the far future. His work is a focal inspiration for the anthropologist priest character, Paul Duré. When Duré becomes
Pope, he takes ''Teilhard I'' as his
regnal name.
★ Teilhard de Chardin and the concept of the
noosphere are referred to in the 1992 ambient-house album
UFOrb, by
The Orb.
★ Daniel, the protagonist in
Michel Houellebecq's 2005 novel ''
The Possibility of an Island'', disparagingly refers to the work of Teilhard de Chardin as hopelessly naive, in that it fails to take into account the temptations of the flesh.
★ Teilhard is a very large part of
Annie Dillard's 1999 ''For the Time Being''.
★ According to
Tom Wolfe's 2000 book ''
Hooking Up'', the teachings of Teilhard de Chardin influenced many of the engineers that were the creators of
Silicon Valley in California.
★ The American sculptor
Frederick Hart was greatly inspired by Teilhard de Chardin, with a renowned 2001
acrylic sculpture titled ''.
★ Residence dormatories at
Gonzaga University and
Seattle University are named after Teilhard de Chardin.
★ A building in the Allen Hall of residence at the
University of Manchester is named after Teilhard.
★ Chapter 21 "Aliens,
Cheetahs, and
Archea" in ''
The Rocket Company'' by
Stiennon & Hoerr discusses Teilhard de Chardin in relation to the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and the
noosphere.
In 1940, the most primitive and ancient genus of true primate, known from the early Eocene (approximately 54 million years before present) of Europe and North America, was named ''Teilhardina'' by the renowned evolutionary biologist George Gaylord Simpson.
References
1. Teilard's headstone at Find A Grave accessed September 20, 2006
2. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ''The Phenomenon of Man'' (New York: Harper and Row, 1959).
3. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ''The Phenomenon of Man'' (New York: Harper and Row, 1959).
4. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ''The Phenomenon of Man'' (New York: Harper and Row, 1959).
5. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ''The Phenomenon of Man'' (New York: Harper and Row, 1959).
6. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ''The Phenomenon of Man'' (New York: Harper and Row, 1959).
Bibliography
The dates in parentheses are the dates of first publication in French and English. Most of these works were written years earlier, but Teilhard's ecclesiastical order forbade him to publish them because of their controversial nature. The essay collections are organized by subject rather than date, thus each one typically spans many years.
★ ''Le Phénomène Humain'' (1955), written 1938–40, scientific exposition of Teilhard's theory of evolution
★
★ ''
The Phenomenon of Man'' (1959), Harper Perennial 1976: ISBN 0-06-090495-X
★
★ ''
The Human Phenomenon'' (1999)
★ ''Letters From a Traveler'' (1956; English translation 1962), written 1923–55
★ ''Le Groupe Zoologique Humain'' (1956), written 1949, more detailed presentation of Teilhard's theories
★
★ ''Man's Place in Nature'' (1973)
★ ''Le Milieu Divin'' (1957), spiritual book written 1926–27
★
★ ''The Divine Milieu'' (1960) Harper Perennial 2001: ISBN 0-06-093725-4
★ ''L'Avenir de l'Homme'' (1959) essays written 1920–52, on the evolution of consciousness (noosphere)
★
★ ''The Future of Man'' (1964) Image 2004: ISBN 0-385-51072-1
★ ''Hymn of the Universe'' (1961; English translation 1965) Harper and Row: ISBN 0-06-131910-4, mystical/spiritual essays and thoughts written 1916–55
★ ''L'Energie Humaine'' (1962), essays written 1931–39, on morality and love
★
★ ''Human Energy'' (1969) Harcort Brace Jovanovich ISBN 0-15-642300-6
★ ''L'Activation de l'Energie'' (1963), sequel to ''Human Energy'', essays written 1939–55 but not planned for publication, about the universality and irreversibility of human action
★
★ ''Activation of Energy'' (1970), Harvest/HBJ 2002: ISBN 0-15-602817-4
★ ''Je M'Explique'' (1966) Jean-Pierre Demoulin, editor ISBN 0-685-36593-X, "The Essential Teilhard" — selected passages from his works
★
★ ''Let Me Explain'' (1970) Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-061800-0, Collins/Fontana 1973: ISBN 0-00-623379-1
★ ''Christianity and Evolution'', Harvest/HBJ 2002: ISBN 0-15-602818-2
★ ''The Heart of the Matter'', Harvest/HBJ 2002: ISBN 0-15-602758-5
★ ''Toward the Future'', Harvest/HBJ 2002: ISBN 0-15-602819-0
External links
Favourable to Teilhard
★
Teilhard de Chardin – The American Teilhard Association homepage
★
Brief profile from
Fairfield University
★
''The Human Phenomenon'' – an excerpt from ''The Phenomenon of Man''
★
A Globe, Clothing Itself With a Brain from ''WIRED'' magazine, June, 1995
★
Is Noogenesis Progressing? – 2002 essay
★
Human Evolution Research Institute
★
Noetic Art – based on quotes from Teilhard's ''Human Energy''
Unfavourable to Teilhard
★
Catholic church ''monitum'' (warning) in 1962, on the writings of Teilhard de Chardin
★
Review of ''The Phenomenon of Man'' by biologist
Peter Medawar
★
1989 review of Wolfgang Smith's ''Teilhardism and the New Religion'', an analysis and refutation of the teachings of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
★
Teilhard, Darwin, and the Cosmic Christ –autumn 1999 newsletter, ''Southern Papist Perspective''
Other
★
Teilhard and the Piltdown hoax – from May 1981 ''Antiquity'' refuting
S J Gould's conjecture in ''The Panda's Thumb'' that Teilhard was involved in the Piltdown hoax
★
Is Teilhard Off the Hook? – from ''Science 83'' also dismissing Gould's claim
★
"Cyberspace and the Dream of Teilhard de Chardin" from summer 1994 ''Creation Spirituality'' magazine
★
Piltdown Man 1997 essay from ''Talk Origins'' considering many suspects and also exonerating Teilhard
★
The Teilhard Page
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