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EspañolREALISM (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS)
(Redirected from Political realism)
'Realism', also known as 'political realism', in the context of international relations, encompasses a variety of theories and approaches, all of which share a belief that states are primarily motivated by the desire for military and economic power or security, rather than ideals or ethics. This term is often synonymous with power politics.
The term 'realism' can, instead of referring to the broad family of realist theories, refer specifically to ''classical realism'', the common ancestor and original form of realism.
Realist theories share the following key assumptions:
★ The international system is anarchic. There is no authority above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to them by some higher controlling entity (that is, no true authoritative world government exists).
★ Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system. International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as having little independent influence.
★ States are rational unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. There is a general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
★ The overriding 'national interest' of each state is its national security and survival.
★ In pursuit of national security, states strive to amass resources.
★ Relations between states are determined by their comparative level of power derived primarily from their military and economic capabilities.
In summary, realists believe that mankind is not inherently benevolent but rather self-centered and competitive. This Hobbesian perspective contrasts with the approach of liberalism to international relations which views human nature as selfish and conflictual unless given appropriate conditions under which to cooperate. Further, they believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism) and/or obsessed with security (defensive realism); and that territorial expansion is only constrained by opposing power(s). This aggressive build-up, however, leads to a security dilemma where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms. Thus, security is a zero-sum game where only ''relative gains'' can be made.
While Realism as a formal discipline in international relations did not arrive until World War II, its primary assumptions have been expressed in earlier writings [1][2]:
★ Sun Tzu (or Sunzi), an ancient Chinese military strategist who wrote the ''Art of War''.
★ Thucydides, an ancient Greek historian who wrote the ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' and is also cited as an intellectual forebearer of realpolitik.
★ Chanakya (or Chansh) early Indian statesman, and writer on the ''Arthashastra''.
★ Han Feizi, Chinese scholar who theorised ''Legalism'' (or Legism) and who served in the court of the King of Qin - later unifier of China ending the ''Warring States Period''. His writings include ''The Two Handles'' (about punishments and rewards as tools of governance). He theorised about a neutral, manipulative ruler who would act as Head of State while secretly controlling the executive through his ministers - the ones to take real responsibility for any policy.
★ Niccolò Machiavelli, a Florentine political philosopher, who wrote ''Il Principe'' (''The Prince'') in which he held that the sole aim of a prince (politician) was to seek power, regardless of religious or ethical considerations.
★ Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher who wrote ''Leviathan'' in which he stated that in anarchy there is a "war of all against all".
★ Otto von Bismarck, a Prussian statesman coined the term balance of power. Balancing power meant keeping the peace and careful realpolitik practitioners tried to avoid arms races.
★ Carl von Clausewitz was a 19th century Prussian general and military theorist who wrote ''On War'' (''Vom Kriege'').
.
Modern realism began as a serious field of research in the United States during and after World War II. This evolution was partly fueled by European war migrants like Hans Morgenthau who had a negative view of human nature, thought by some to be due to their experiences in war.
Prominent classical realists:
★ George F. Kennan - Containment
★ Nicholas Spykman - Geostrategy, Containment
★ Herman Kahn - Nuclear strategy
★ E. H. Carr
★ Reinhold Niebuhr
★ Hans Morgenthau
★ Arnold Wolfers
★ Charles Beard
★ Walter Lippmann
Main articles: English school of international relations theory
The English School holds that while the international system is anarchical, order can be promoted through diplomacy, international law and society. This school thus gives credence to establishing intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations.
Prominent liberal realists:
★ Hedley Bull - argued for both the existence of international society of states and its perseverance even in times of great systemic upheaval, meaning regional or so-called “world wars.”
★ Martin Wight
Main articles: Neorealism
Neorealism derives from classical realism except that instead of human nature, its focus is predominantly on the ''international system''. While states remain the principal actors, greater attention is given to the forces above and below the states through levels of analysis or structure-agency debate. The international system is seen as a ''structure'' acting on the state with individuals below the level of the state acting as ''agency'' on the state as a whole.
While neorealism shares a focus on the ''international system'' with the English School, neorealism differs in the emphasis it places on the permanence of conflict. To ensure state security, states must be on constant preparation for conflict through economic and military build-up.
Prominent neorealists:
★ Robert Jervis - Defensive realism
★ Kenneth Waltz - Defensive realism
★ Stephen Walt - Defensive realism
★ John Mearsheimer - Offensive realism
★ Robert Gilpin - Hegemonic theory
Neoclassical Realism can be seen as the third generation of realism, coming after the classical authors of the first wave (Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau), and the neorealists (esp. Kenneth Waltz). Its designation of "neoclassical", then, has a double meaning:
1) It offers the classics a renaissance;
2) It is a synthesis of the neorealist and the classical realist approaches.
Gideon Rose is responsible for coining the term in a book review he wrote [3].
The primary motivation underlying the development of neoclassical realism was the fact that neorealism was only useful to explain political outcomes (classified as being 'theories of international politics'), but had nothing to offer about particular states' behavior (or 'theories of foreign policy'). The basic approach, then, was for these authors to "refine, not refute, Kenneth Waltz", by adding domestic intervening variables between systemic incentives and a state's foreign policy decision. Thus, the basic theoretical architecture of Neoclassical Realism is:
Distribution of power in the international system (independent variable) >>> Domestic perception of the system and/or domestic incentives (intervening variable) >>> Foreign Policy decision (dependent variable)
While neoclassical realism has only been used for theories of foreign policy so far, Randall Schweller notes that it could be useful to explain certain types of political outcomes as well.[4].
Neoclassical realism is particularly appealing from a research standpoint because it still retains a lot of the theoretical rigor that Waltz has brought to realism, but at the same time can easily incorporate a content-rich analysis, since its main method for testing theories is the process-tracing of case studies.
Prominent neoclassical realists:
★ Randall Schweller
★ Fareed Zakaria
★ Thomas Christensen
★ William Wohlforth
★ Aaron Friedberg
;Modern realist statesmen
★ Henry Kissinger
★ Zbigniew Brzezinski
★ Brent Scowcroft
Democratic peace theory advocates also argue that Realism is not applicable to democratic states' relations with each another, as their studies claim that such states do not go to war with one another. However, Realists and proponents of other schools have critiqued both this claim and the studies which appear to support it, pointing out that its definitions of 'war' and 'democracy' must be tweaked in order to achieve the desired result.
The term refers to the theory or advocacy of federal political orders, where final authority is divided between sub-units and a centre. Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally split between at least two territorial levels so that units at each level have final authority and can act independently of the others in some area. Citizens thus have political obligations to two authorities. The allocation of authority between the sub-unit and centre may vary, typically the centre has powers regarding defence and foreign policy, but sub-units may also have international roles. The sub-units may also participate in central decision-making bodies.
The basic idea behind federalism is that relations between states should be conducted under the rule of law. Conflict and disagreement should be resolved through peaceful means rather than through coercion or war. Its most important aspect is that it recognises that there are different types of political issues which need different types of institution to deal with them.
★ Global justice
1. Political Realism, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2. see also Doyle, Michael. ''Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism (Paperback)''. 1997. London: W. W. Norton & Company, esp. pp. 41-204
3. Gideon Rose, "Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy", ''World Politics'', Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 144-172
4. Randall L. Schweller, "The Progressiveness of Neoclassical Realism", pp. 311-347 in Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman eds., ''Progress in International Relations Theory'', (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003)
★ Global Power Barometer
★ The Realist Persuasion by Andrew J. Bacevich, for the ''Boston Globe'', November 6, 2005
★ The National Interest
'Realism', also known as 'political realism', in the context of international relations, encompasses a variety of theories and approaches, all of which share a belief that states are primarily motivated by the desire for military and economic power or security, rather than ideals or ethics. This term is often synonymous with power politics.
The term 'realism' can, instead of referring to the broad family of realist theories, refer specifically to ''classical realism'', the common ancestor and original form of realism.
Common assumptions
Realist theories share the following key assumptions:
★ The international system is anarchic. There is no authority above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to them by some higher controlling entity (that is, no true authoritative world government exists).
★ Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system. International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as having little independent influence.
★ States are rational unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. There is a general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
★ The overriding 'national interest' of each state is its national security and survival.
★ In pursuit of national security, states strive to amass resources.
★ Relations between states are determined by their comparative level of power derived primarily from their military and economic capabilities.
In summary, realists believe that mankind is not inherently benevolent but rather self-centered and competitive. This Hobbesian perspective contrasts with the approach of liberalism to international relations which views human nature as selfish and conflictual unless given appropriate conditions under which to cooperate. Further, they believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism) and/or obsessed with security (defensive realism); and that territorial expansion is only constrained by opposing power(s). This aggressive build-up, however, leads to a security dilemma where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms. Thus, security is a zero-sum game where only ''relative gains'' can be made.
History and branches
Historic antecedents
While Realism as a formal discipline in international relations did not arrive until World War II, its primary assumptions have been expressed in earlier writings [1][2]:
★ Sun Tzu (or Sunzi), an ancient Chinese military strategist who wrote the ''Art of War''.
★ Thucydides, an ancient Greek historian who wrote the ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' and is also cited as an intellectual forebearer of realpolitik.
★ Chanakya (or Chansh) early Indian statesman, and writer on the ''Arthashastra''.
★ Han Feizi, Chinese scholar who theorised ''Legalism'' (or Legism) and who served in the court of the King of Qin - later unifier of China ending the ''Warring States Period''. His writings include ''The Two Handles'' (about punishments and rewards as tools of governance). He theorised about a neutral, manipulative ruler who would act as Head of State while secretly controlling the executive through his ministers - the ones to take real responsibility for any policy.
★ Niccolò Machiavelli, a Florentine political philosopher, who wrote ''Il Principe'' (''The Prince'') in which he held that the sole aim of a prince (politician) was to seek power, regardless of religious or ethical considerations.
★ Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher who wrote ''Leviathan'' in which he stated that in anarchy there is a "war of all against all".
★ Otto von Bismarck, a Prussian statesman coined the term balance of power. Balancing power meant keeping the peace and careful realpolitik practitioners tried to avoid arms races.
★ Carl von Clausewitz was a 19th century Prussian general and military theorist who wrote ''On War'' (''Vom Kriege'').
.
Classical Realism
Modern realism began as a serious field of research in the United States during and after World War II. This evolution was partly fueled by European war migrants like Hans Morgenthau who had a negative view of human nature, thought by some to be due to their experiences in war.
Prominent classical realists:
★ George F. Kennan - Containment
★ Nicholas Spykman - Geostrategy, Containment
★ Herman Kahn - Nuclear strategy
★ E. H. Carr
★ Reinhold Niebuhr
★ Hans Morgenthau
★ Arnold Wolfers
★ Charles Beard
★ Walter Lippmann
Liberal Realism or the English School or Rationalism
Main articles: English school of international relations theory
The English School holds that while the international system is anarchical, order can be promoted through diplomacy, international law and society. This school thus gives credence to establishing intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations.
Prominent liberal realists:
★ Hedley Bull - argued for both the existence of international society of states and its perseverance even in times of great systemic upheaval, meaning regional or so-called “world wars.”
★ Martin Wight
Neorealism or Structural Realism
Main articles: Neorealism
Neorealism derives from classical realism except that instead of human nature, its focus is predominantly on the ''international system''. While states remain the principal actors, greater attention is given to the forces above and below the states through levels of analysis or structure-agency debate. The international system is seen as a ''structure'' acting on the state with individuals below the level of the state acting as ''agency'' on the state as a whole.
While neorealism shares a focus on the ''international system'' with the English School, neorealism differs in the emphasis it places on the permanence of conflict. To ensure state security, states must be on constant preparation for conflict through economic and military build-up.
Prominent neorealists:
★ Robert Jervis - Defensive realism
★ Kenneth Waltz - Defensive realism
★ Stephen Walt - Defensive realism
★ John Mearsheimer - Offensive realism
★ Robert Gilpin - Hegemonic theory
Neoclassical realism
Neoclassical Realism can be seen as the third generation of realism, coming after the classical authors of the first wave (Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau), and the neorealists (esp. Kenneth Waltz). Its designation of "neoclassical", then, has a double meaning:
1) It offers the classics a renaissance;
2) It is a synthesis of the neorealist and the classical realist approaches.
Gideon Rose is responsible for coining the term in a book review he wrote [3].
The primary motivation underlying the development of neoclassical realism was the fact that neorealism was only useful to explain political outcomes (classified as being 'theories of international politics'), but had nothing to offer about particular states' behavior (or 'theories of foreign policy'). The basic approach, then, was for these authors to "refine, not refute, Kenneth Waltz", by adding domestic intervening variables between systemic incentives and a state's foreign policy decision. Thus, the basic theoretical architecture of Neoclassical Realism is:
Distribution of power in the international system (independent variable) >>> Domestic perception of the system and/or domestic incentives (intervening variable) >>> Foreign Policy decision (dependent variable)
While neoclassical realism has only been used for theories of foreign policy so far, Randall Schweller notes that it could be useful to explain certain types of political outcomes as well.[4].
Neoclassical realism is particularly appealing from a research standpoint because it still retains a lot of the theoretical rigor that Waltz has brought to realism, but at the same time can easily incorporate a content-rich analysis, since its main method for testing theories is the process-tracing of case studies.
Prominent neoclassical realists:
★ Randall Schweller
★ Fareed Zakaria
★ Thomas Christensen
★ William Wohlforth
★ Aaron Friedberg
Realism in statecraft
;Modern realist statesmen
★ Henry Kissinger
★ Zbigniew Brzezinski
★ Brent Scowcroft
Criticisms
Democratic peace
Democratic peace theory advocates also argue that Realism is not applicable to democratic states' relations with each another, as their studies claim that such states do not go to war with one another. However, Realists and proponents of other schools have critiqued both this claim and the studies which appear to support it, pointing out that its definitions of 'war' and 'democracy' must be tweaked in order to achieve the desired result.
Federalism
The term refers to the theory or advocacy of federal political orders, where final authority is divided between sub-units and a centre. Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally split between at least two territorial levels so that units at each level have final authority and can act independently of the others in some area. Citizens thus have political obligations to two authorities. The allocation of authority between the sub-unit and centre may vary, typically the centre has powers regarding defence and foreign policy, but sub-units may also have international roles. The sub-units may also participate in central decision-making bodies.
The basic idea behind federalism is that relations between states should be conducted under the rule of law. Conflict and disagreement should be resolved through peaceful means rather than through coercion or war. Its most important aspect is that it recognises that there are different types of political issues which need different types of institution to deal with them.
See also
★ Global justice
References
1. Political Realism, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2. see also Doyle, Michael. ''Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism (Paperback)''. 1997. London: W. W. Norton & Company, esp. pp. 41-204
3. Gideon Rose, "Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy", ''World Politics'', Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 144-172
4. Randall L. Schweller, "The Progressiveness of Neoclassical Realism", pp. 311-347 in Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman eds., ''Progress in International Relations Theory'', (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003)
External links
★ Global Power Barometer
★ The Realist Persuasion by Andrew J. Bacevich, for the ''Boston Globe'', November 6, 2005
★ The National Interest
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