POPE SYLVESTER II

'Sylvester II', or 'Silvester II' (c. 950 – May 12, 1003), born 'Gerbert d'Aurillac', was a prolific scholar of the 10th century. He introduced Arabic knowledge of arithmetic, astronomy and astrology to Europe. He was the first French Pope (see list), reigning from 999 until his death.

Contents

Life

Work

Gerbert in legend

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Life

Gerbert was born about 945 in the Auvergne region of France. Around 963, he entered the monastery of St. Gerald of Aurillac. In 967, Borrell II of Barcelona (947–992), visited the monastery, and the abbot asked the Count to take Gerbert with him so that the lad could study mathematics in Spain. In the following years, Gerbert studied under the direction of Bishop Atto of Vich, some 60 km north of Barcelona, and probably also at the nearby abbey of Santa Maria de Ripoll.^[1]
In 969, Count Borrell II made a pilgrimage to Rome, taking Gerbert with him. There Gerbert met Pope John XIII (965–972) and the Emperor Otto I, surnamed the Great (936–973). The Pope persuaded Otto I to employ Gerbert as tutor for his young son, the future Emperor Otto II (973–983). Some years later, Otto I gave Gerbert leave to go to study at the cathedral school of Rheims where he was soon appointed a teacher in the cathedral school by Adalberon, Archbishop of Rheims.
When Otto II became Holy Roman Emperor in 973 (he was co-emperor with Otto I from 967), he appointed Gerbert the abbot of the monastery of Bobbio and also appointed him as count of the district, but the abbey had been ruined by previous abbots, and Gerbert soon returned to Rheims.
After the death of Otto II in 983, Gerbert became involved in the politics of his time. In 985, with the support of his archbishop, he opposed Lothair of France's (954–986) attempt to take the Lorraine from Emperor Otto III (983–1002) by supporting Hugh Capet (987–996). Capet became King of France, ending the Carolingian line of Kings in 987.
Adalbero died in 988. Gerbert was a natural candidate for his succession, but Hugh Capet appointed Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Lothair instead. Arnulf was deposed in 991 for alleged treason against the King, and Gerbert was elected his successor. There was so much opposition to Gerbert's elevation to the See of Rheims, however, that Pope John XV (985–996) sent a legate to France who temporarily suspended Gerbert from his episcopal office. Gerbert sought to show that this decree was unlawful, but a further synod in 995 declared Arnulf's deposition invalid.
Gerbert now became the teacher of Otto III, and Pope Gregory V (996–999), Otto III's cousin, appointed him Archbishop of Ravenna in 998. The Emperor elected him to succeed Gregory V as Pope in 999. Gerbert took the name of Sylvester II, alluding to Pope Sylvester I (314–335), the advisor of Emperor Constantine I (324–337). Soon after he was elected Pope, Sylvester II confirmed the position of his former rival Arnulf as archbishop of Rheims.
In 1001, the Roman populace revolted against the Emperor, forcing Otto III and Sylvester II to flee to Ravenna. Otto III led two unsuccessful expeditions to regain control of the city, and died on a third expedition in 1002. Sylvester II returned to Rome soon after the Emperor's death, although the rebellious nobility remained in power, and died a little later. He is buried in St. John Lateran.

Work

Gerbert, as a scientist, was said to be far ahead of his time. Gerbert wrote a series of works dealing with matters of the quadrivium. He had learned the non-zero Hindu-Arabic digits in Spain, and could do calculations in his head that were extremely difficult for people thinking in terms of the Roman numerals. In Rheims, he constructed a hydraulic organ that excelled all previously known instruments, where the air had to be pumped manually. Gerbert reintroduced the abacus into Europe, and in a letter of 984, he asks Lupitus of Barcelona for a translation of an Arabic astronomical treatise. Gerbert may have been the author of a description of the astrolabe that was edited by Hermannus Contractus some 50 years later.
As Pope, he took energetic measures against the widespread practices of simony and concubinage among the clergy, maintaining that only capable men of spotless lives should be allowed to become bishop. Sylvester II wrote a dogmatic treatise, ''De corpore et sanguine Domini''.
He sent the crown to St. Stephen I of Hungary who was the first Christian king in his country.

Gerbert in legend

Gerbert was reputed to have studied magical arts and astrology at the Islamic cities of Córdoba and Seville and even at the University of Al Karaouine in Morroco.^[2] This gave rise to legends that portray him as a sorcerer in league with the Devil.
Gerbert was supposed to be in possession of a book of spells stolen from an Arab philosopher in Spain. Gerbert fled, pursued by the victim, who could trace the thief by the stars, but Gerbert was aware of the pursuit, and hid hanging from a wooden bridge, where, suspended between heaven and earth, he was invisible to the magician.
Gerbert was supposed to have built a brazen head, or to have acquired it from the Buddhist secret society of the Nine Unknown Men. This "robotic" head would answer his questions with "yes" or "no". He was also reputed to have had a pact with a female demon called ''Meridiana'', who had appeared after he had been rejected by his earthly love, and with whose help he managed to ascend to the papal throne (another legend tells that he won the papacy playing dice with the Devil).
According to the legend, Meridiana (or the bronze head) told Gerbert that if he should ever read a mass in Jerusalem, the Devil would come for him. Gerbert then cancelled a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, but when he read mass in the church of Saint Mary of Jerusalem (also called "Jerusalem church") in Rome, he became sick soon afterwards and, dying, he asked his cardinals to cut up his body and scatter it across the city. In another version, he was even attacked by the Devil while he was reading the Mass, and the Devil mutilated him and gave his gouged-out eyes to demons to play with in the Church. Repenting, Sylvester II then cut off his hand and his tongue.
It is commonly believed that Sylvester was Jewish, French-Sephardic in origin, and either secretly practicing Judaism or in any case accutely aware of his heritage. There is evidence that Sylvester studied the books of the Kabbalah. It said that people feared him and trembled in his presence, thinking he was well-versed in all manner of sorcery; this is the usual mythology surrounding Jewish historical figures who do not remain publicly in the Jewish faith.
★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html#sec21 The inscription on Gerbert's tomb reads in part ''Iste locus Silvestris membra sepulti venturo Domino conferet ad sonitum'' ("This place, at the advent of the Lord, will yield to the sound [of the last trumpet] the buried members of Sylvester II", mis-read as "will make a sound") has given rise to the curious legend that his bones will rattle in that tomb just before the death of a Pope.
This is a curious reflection of the Jewish practice of bowing/moving during prayer, in order to fulfill the commandment of praising God with every bone in the body. It is yet another possible clue identifying Sylvester as Jewish. In fact, Sylvester was said to be petrified at the thought of the new millennium: on the last night of the year A.D. 999, Sylvester nervously celebrated mass, thinking the world might end even as he consecrated the bread and wine!
The legends about Gerbert as a sorcerer arose during his reign; they grew more powerful a century after his death. There have been other Popes who were suspected of sorcery, for example John XXI (1276–77) and Benedict XII (1334–42). Pope Gregory XII (1406–15) was questioned about magical practices in 1409 at the Council of Pisa.

Notes

1. Betty Mayfield, "Gerbert d'Aurillac and the March of Spain: A Convergence of Cultures"
2. Bubnov dismisses as a fable the story that Gerbert travelled to Cordoba and says nothing of any further travels to Seville or Morocco. Nicolaus Bubnov, ''Gerberti, postea Silvestri II papae, Opera Mathematica (972-1003)'', Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1963, reprint of the Berlin, 1899 edition, p. 383, n. 32. A more favorable evaluation of "the legends around Gerbert's voyage to Spain" that grew from "a mere scrap of dubious source material" is given in Oscar G. Darlington, "Gerbert, the Teacher," ''The American Historical Review'', 52 (1947): 456-476, see note. 28

Bibliography

Gerbert's writings were printed in volume 139 of the Patrologia Latina.

★ Mathematical writings

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★ ''Libellus de numerorum divisione''

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★ ''De geometria''

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★ ''Epistola ad Adelbodum''

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★ ''De sphaerae constructione''

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★ ''Libellus de rationali et ratione uti''

★ Ecclesiastical writings

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★ ''Sermo de informatione episcoporum''

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★ ''De corpore et sanguine Domini''

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★ ''Selecta e concil. Basol., Remens., Masom., etc.''

★ 'Letters'

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★ ''Epistolae ante summum pontificatum scriptae ''

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★ 218 letters, including letters to the emperor, the pope, and various bishops

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★ ''Epistolae et decreta pontificia''

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★ 15 letters to various bishops, including Arnulf, and abbots, and one letter to Stephen I of Hungary

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★ one dubious letter to Otto III.

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★ five short poems

★ Other

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★ ''Acta concilii Remensis ad S. Basolum''

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★ ''Leonis legati epistola ad Hugonem et Robertum reges''

External links

★ Catholic Encyclopedia

★ Betty Mayfield, "Gerbert d'Aurillac and the March of Spain: A Convergence of Cultures"

★ Gerbert of Aurillac (ca. 955-1003), lecture by Lynn H. Nelson.