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RELIGION IN INDIA
:''See Indian religions for those religions originating in the Indan subcontinent.''
The religious demographics of the Republic of India show a predominance of Hinduism (an umbrella term which includes many sub-denominations), accounting for 80% of the population. The second largest religion is Islam (13%).
The other natively Indian religions, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism taken together account for less than 3%.
About 2% of Indians adhere to Christianity.
The following is the break-up of different religions in India by population:
Source: Census of India, 2001 Tables: Profiles by main religions. DATA FILE (in Spreadsheet format) Please download the file (which is compressed by winzip) to see the data in spreadsheet.
Source: The First Report on Religion: Census of India 2001 Tables: Profiles by main religions.
'α.' The data excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur
'β.' The data is "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir
More than nine-tenths of Indians state that religion plays a key role in their lives.[1] Though inter-religious marriages are generally taboo, Indians are generally tolerant of other religions and retain a secular outlook. Inter-community clashes have never found widespread support in the social mainstream, and it is generally perceived that its causes are political rather than ideological in nature. India's religious diversity extends to the highest levels of government; the Prime Minister of India is a Sikh, the President of India is a Hindu, and the chairperson of the ruling United Progressive Alliance (UPA) is a Christian. The Constitution of India declares the nation to be a secular republic that must uphold the right of citizens to freely worship and propagate any religion or faith.[2][3]
The predominance of Hinduism in the Republic of India is a direct result of the 1947 Partition of India and the subsequent population movements. However, Hinduism is also the religion of the majority of the population of the Indian subcontinent considered as a whole. The distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of British India is (according to the CIA Factbook):
★ India: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M)
★ Pakistan: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M)
★ Bangladesh: 83% Muslim, 16% Hindu (150 M)
★ Myanmar: 89% Buddhist, 4% Muslim, 4% Christian (43 M)
★ Sri Lanka: 70% Buddhist, 7% Hindu, 7% Muslim, 7% Christian (20 M)
In total yielding 61% Hindus, 29% Muslims, 5% Buddhists, 2% Christians and 1% Sikhs.
Main articles: Constitution of India, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India, Secularism in India
The preamble to the Constitution of India proclaimed India a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic". The word ''secular'' was inserted into the Preamble by the Forty-second Amendment Act of 1976. It mandates equal treatment and tolerance of all religions. India does not have an official state religion; it enshrines the right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion. No religious instruction is imparted in government-supported schools. In S. R. Bommai vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India held that secularism was an integral tenet of the Constitution. Protecting secularism and federal fair play, Swami Praveen, , , Frontline,
The right to freedom of religion is a fundamental right according to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution also recommends establishment of a uniform civil code for its citizens as a Directive Principle.[4] However this has not been implemented until now. The Supreme Court has stated that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counterproductive to the unity of the nation, and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (''Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh, 1996''). Unifying personal laws In ''Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India (1994)'' the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ of mandamus against the government to introduce a common civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature. Where's the Uniform Civil Code? Arvind Lavakare
Religious communities continue to be governed by their own personal laws. Apart from Muslims, designated religious codes apply to Hindus, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews; for legal purposes, Buddhists and Sikhs are classified as Hindus and are subject to Hindu personal law. India, Republic of Civil laws for Muslims are based on ''Sharia'' law. The Code of Criminal Procedure is uniformly applied to all Indian citizens.
A Hindu is a person who practices good karma and bhakti for the achievement of moksha or mukti.
Hinduism is the largest religion in India, counting approximately 900 million adherents, comprising 80.4% of the population. Often considered a "way of life" rather than a religion, it arose in the Indian subcontinent during the period 2000-1500 BCE. The word Hindu, originally a geographical description, derives from the Sanskrit, ''Sindhu'', (the historical appellation for the river Indus), and refers to a person from the ''land of the river Sindhu''. The title Hindu was accepted by the followers of the religion (a.k.a. "Sanatan Dharma") because Hind (India) is their Fatherland and Holyland.
Hinduism differs from many religions in not having a single founder, a specific theological system, a single system of morality, or a central religious organization. The religion is ideologically tolerant and inclusive—qualities which have enabled it to co-exist with other religions over its long history. The main holy books of Hinduism are the Vedas (its foundation) and the Upanishads. Hindus are allowed to worship (or practice their bhagavat-dharma) God in any form and so many Hindus have even have a specific Purana for their deity (i.e. Kali Purana.)
''Astika'' (IAST:) is a Sanskrit adjective (and noun) that is derived from ''asti'' ("it is or exists")Monier-Williams, Monier, ''"Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary"'', Nataraj Books, 2006, ISBN 18-81338-58-4 meaning "believing" or "pious"[5]; or "one who believes in the existence (of God, of another world, etc.)." ''Nastika'' (''na'' (not) + '') is its negative, literally meaning "not believing" or "not pious". As used in Indian philosophy ''nastika'' refers to belief in Vedic-derived discipline, not belief or lack of belief in theism. In popular language the term ''nastika'' also means "atheist". As N. N. Bhattacharyya writes:
Hinduism is, in fact, an immense synthesis, deriving its elements from a hundred different directions, and incorporating every conceivable motive of religion. The motives of Hindu religion are manifold. Earth-worship, sun-worship, nature-worship, sky-worship, honour paid to heroes and ancestors, mother-worship, father-worship, prayers for the dead, the mystic association of certain plants and animals: and all these and more are included within Hinduism. And each marks some single age of the past, with its characteristic conjunction or invasion of races formerly alien to one another. They are all welded together now to form a great whole. Now and again in history a great systematizing impulse has striven to cast all or part of recognized belief into the form of an organic whole. [7]
Hinduism is polytheist because many of it consists of of practitioners who worship different forms of God, although it is monotheist because it advocates the belief in one God, it is pantheistic because it believe all things of the universe, including the Devtas are a part and parcel of God.
Hinduism advocates that God has three major aspects; to create, sustain and destroy. Hinduism teaches that both God and the soul are eternal, although God is infallible and that it is the aim of the human to reach God.
It follows the Vedic calender. The Rig Veda is the foundation of Hinduism, although a Hindu does not require to believe that Veda is the central source of knowledge, rather each Hindu is to seek out spiritual knowledge wherever they can.
:''Main article: Ayyavazhi''
Ayyavazhi is a religion which originated in south India in the 19th century. Officially, in India, it is considered a sect within Hinduism, and its followers are counted as Hindus in the census. Ayyavazhi is also viewed as a Hindu Renaissance. Ayyavazhi has transformed itself into a distinctive and recognisable religion, having made its presence felt in southern India starting in the mid 1830s. Ayyavazhi served initially also as a reformatory system in the society of Travancore, which was noted, unlike any other part of India, for the rule of caste order. It has more than 8000 worship centers throughout India, mostly in the southern parts of Tamil Nadu and south Kerala.
Alhough it shares ideas with Hinduism, the Ayyavazhi scriptures reformulate them into versions distinct from Hinduism. The religion has separate mythology, theology, holy places, worship centers and religious headquarters.
Main articles: Islam in India
Islam arrived in India as early as the 8th century A.D. During the following years, Islam contributed greatly to the cultural enhancement of an already rich Indian culture, shaping not only the shape of Northern Indian classical music (Hindustani, a melding of Indian and Middle Eastern elements) but encouraging a grand tradition of Urdu (a melding of Hindi, Arabic and Persian languages) literature, both religious and secular. As of 2001, there were about 138 million Muslims in India (the third largest population in the world, after Pakistan and Indonesia), who are scattered throughout the country, with the highest concentrations in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, Kerala, West Bengal and parts of the Gangetic plain. Uttar Pradesh, in the Gangetic plain, has the highest population of Muslims in one state. Muslims make up majority population in the state of Jammu & Kashmir and the union territory of Lakshadweep Islands. There are about 75 sects of Islam followed in India. Sunni Islam is the denomination practiced by the majority of Indian Muslims, followed by Shia Islam.
Main articles: Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya is a relatively small messianic movement founded in 1899 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.[8] The majority of Ahmadis live in northern India, although many are found in New Delhi, Kashmir, and Uttar Pradesh. There are approximately one million Ahmadis in India. The Ahmadiyya's identify themselves as Muslims and there has been a court decision in which this was upheld.[9]
Jainism, along with Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, is one of the four major Dharmic religions originating in India. Dating back to the first millennium BCE, the religion was well in place during the lifetime of its 24th tirthankar, Mahavira. Today, Jains are extremely well-represented in the major professions, despite comprising only 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's population. According to the 2001 Census of India, Jains have the highest literacy rate of any religious group—94.1%, in contrast to the national average of 64.8%.
Buddhism, also known as ''Buddha Dharma'', originated in northern India in the 6th century BCE, and rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Since, the religion was adopted mostly by the upper classes, its numbers in India remained small—in the hundreds of thousands. While the exact cause of the decline of Buddhism in India after the 9th century CE is not known, Vedanta reform movements, which incorporated Buddhist elements into Hinduism, are thought to have contributed to it, as did Islamic invasions of India, which devastated Buddhist monasteries, libraries, and statuary.
The 20th century saw a resurgence of Buddhism in India. In 1956, B. R. Ambedkar, the main architect of the Indian constitution, and thousands of his Dalit followers converted to Buddhism to protest the Indian caste system. Buddhists form a large population in the Indian states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir. In all, around 9 million Buddhists live in India today.
Most of the Buddhists in India have Hindu names.
:''Main article: Sikhism in India''
Sikhism, was founded in India's northwestern Punjab region about 400 years ago and Sikhs form the majority population in the state of Punjab. As of 2001 there were 19.3 million Sikhs in India. Many of today's Sikhs are situated in Punjab, the largest Sikh province in the world and the ancestral home of Sikhs. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in the neighboring states of Haryana and New Delhi. The most famous Sikh temple is the Golden Temple, located in Amritsar, Punjab. Many Sikhs serve in the Indian Army. The current prime minister of India, Manmohan Singh, is a Sikh. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority.
Main articles: Christianity in India
Christianity, according to tradition arrived in India in the first century (c.52-85AD) through the apostle Thomas. The chronicle of his mission in India is recorded in the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas, and the lesser-known Apocalypse of Thomas. In these books, Judas Thomas is regarded as the "Twin" of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, alleging that since this Thomas was identical in look to Christ, he was equal in piety. The apostle completed the conversion of a Malabar prince, and founded a church on the prince's grounds. According to the Gospel of Thomas, he later was buried in the foundation of that building, located by tradition near Mumbai (formerly Bombay).
Christianity was later consolidated in India, by the arrival of Syriac Jewish-Christians now known as Knanaya people in the second century A.D. This ancient ethnic Christian community of Kerala is known as Nasrani or Syrian Christian. The Nasrani people and especially the Knanaya people within the Nasranis have strong Jewish historical ties. Their form of Christianity is one of the most ancient: Syriac Christianity which is also known as the Eastern Orthodox Church and referred to in India as Saint Thomas Christians. It should be noted that the term "Saint Thomas Christians" is a loose term that many non-Nasranis Christians in Kerala are often labelled.
Roman Catholicism reached India during the period of European colonization, which began in 1498 when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived on the Malabar coast. There are over 17 million Catholics in India, which represents 1.5% of the total population. Christian missionary activity increased in the early 1800s. Today Christianity is the third largest religion of India making up 2 - 2.9% of the population. Christianity is prevalent in South & North-east India. Christians make up majority population in the states of Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram. All these states are tribal and have extremely low population when compared to the larger states in India.
Main articles: Jews in India
Trade contacts between the Mediterranean region and the west coast of India probably led to the presence of small Jewish settlements in India as long ago as the early first millennium B.C. In Kerala a community of Jews tracing its origin to the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 has remained associated with the cities of Kodungallur (formerly known as Cranganore) and Kochi (formerly known as Cochin) for at least 1,000 years. The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, rebuilt in 1568, is in the architectural style of Kerala but preserves the ritual style of the Sephardic rite, with Babylonian and Yemenite influence as well.
The Jews of Kochi, concentrated mostly in the old "Jew Town," were completely integrated into local culture, speaking Malayalam and taking local names while preserving their knowledge of Hebrew and contacts with Southwest Asia. A separate community of Jews, called the Bene Israel, had lived along the Konkan Coast in and around Bombay, Pune, and Ahmadabad for almost 2,000 years. Unlike the Kochi Jews, they became a village-based society and maintained little contact with other Jewish communities. They always remained within the Orthodox Jewish fold, practising the Sephardi rite without rabbis, with the synagogue as the centre of religious and cultural life. Following trade routes established by the expansion of the British Empire, a third group of Jews, the Baghdadi Jews immigrated to India, settling primarily in Bombay and Calcutta. Many of the Baghdadi traders became wealthy and participated prominently in the economic leadership of these growing cities. As a result of religious pressure elsewhere, including the forced conversions of Mashhad (''see Muslim Jew''), their numbers were increased by religious refugees. The Baghdadis came mostly from the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and Afghanistan.
The population of the Kochi Jews, always small, had decreased from 5,000 in 1951 to about fifty in the early 1990s. During the same period, the Bene Israel decreased from about 20,000 to 5,000, while the Baghdadi Jews declined from 5,000 to 250. Emigration to Australia, Israel, the United Kingdom, and North America accounts for most of this decline. According to the 1981 Indian census, there were 5,618 Jews in India, down from 5,825 in 1971. The 1991 census showed a further decline to 5,271, most of whom lived in Maharashtra and Kerala.
The Knanaya and Nasrani Christian groups also have strong historical ties to Judaism.
Main articles: Parsi
Zoroastrianism was founded by the Magi known as Zoroaster. His religion was popular on the Greater Iran.
Subsequent to the fall of the Persian Empire, after which Zoroastrianism was gradually supplanted by Islam, many Zoroastrians fled to other regions in the hope of preserving their religious tradition. Among them were several groups who migrated to Gujarat, on the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis.
In contrast to their co-religionists elsewhere, in India the Zoroastrians enjoyed tolerance and even admiration from other religious communities. From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society, partly due to the divisive strategy of British colonialism which favored certain minorities. As such, Parsis are generally more affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most Anglicised and "Westernised" of Indian minority groups. They have also played an instrumental role in the economic development of the country over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata, Godrej, and Wadia families.
As of the census of 2001, the Parsis represent approximately 0.06% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of Mumbai (previously known as Bombay).
:''Main article: Bahá'ís in India''
About 2.2 million people in India follow the Bahá'í Faith. They are the largest community of Bahá'ís in the world. The Lotus Temple in New Delhi is one of the main symbols of the Bahá'í Faith in India. Bahá'ís are spread all over India and have recently increased in number. The Bahai see the icons of all religions whether they be Krishna or Mohammed, as the avatar or incarnation of God.
India is also home to a considerable number of atheists and agnostics. Bhagat Singh, one of India's prominent freedom fighters, was an atheist and yet, a member of the Arya Samaj.
There are various tribal religions in India followed by many people. Many of these tribals practice Hinduism as well to achieve Moksha or Mukti.[10] However, they have some traditions separate from Hinduism. Generally the number is either quite small or the people are found in the remotest area thus they are overlooked during census-taking. However, there are a number of traditional religions praciced in India, including 'Donyi-Polo' and 'Rangfrah'. These religions are mainly followed in Arunachal Pradesh. 'Animism' is also followed by many tribes in southern India and Bihar.
'Mahima' is another Hindu tradition followed in India which developed in the tribal regions of eastern and central India. This religion is not very common but is unknown to most of the people in India. It is mainly followed by the tribal people of Orissa. The full name of the religion is "Satya Mahima Alekha Dharma", which means the true path of indescribable grace. The religion is essentially monotheistic in nature. Mahimaa religion strictly prescribes the caste system, idol worship. The religion strictly forbids adultery, the consumption of any intoxicants, violence, and the consumption of any flesh apart from fish. Eating of food after the sunset is also a taboo. In its essence it is essentially anti-hierarchical and is anarchistic in its criticism of the existing state system of late nineteenth/early twentieth century tribal dominated Western Orissa. The religion has a monastic order. But the members of the monastic order, like Buddhist monks, do not constitute a priestly class and have no control over the lay practitioners. They have to lead a life of poverty, celibacy, piety and constant movement, as the monks are not allwoed to sleep in the same place on two consecutive nights.
Religious ideology, particularly that expressed by the Hindutva movement, has strongly influenced Indian politics in the last quarter of the 20th century. Many of the elements underlying India's casteism and communalism originated during the rule of the British Raj, particularly after the late 19th century; the authorities and others often politicised religion.[11] The Indian Councils Act of 1909 (widely known as the Morley-Minto Reforms Act), which established separate Hindu and Muslim electorates for the Imperial Legislature and provincial councils, was particularly divisive. It was blamed for increasing tensions between the two communities.[11] Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes, the Constitution of India included provisions for affirmative action for certain sections of Indian society. Growing disenchantment with the Hindu caste system has led thousands of Dalits (also referred to as "Untouchables") to embrace Buddhism and Christianity in recent decades. Dalits in conversion ceremony In response, many states ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) introduced laws that made them more difficult; they assert that such conversions are often forced or allured. Constitution doesn’t permit forced conversions: Naqvi, , , , BJP Today, The BJP, a Hindu nationalist party, gained widespread media attention after its leaders associated themselves with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and other prominent issues.[11]
A well known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics, meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community. Both the Congress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. The Shah Bano case, a divorce lawsuit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the Supreme Court's decision. There have been allegations that sensing an consolidation of Hindu votes against the Congress, its Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, ordered the opening of locks in the Ram Temple at Ayodhya to appease the Hindus. Congress has lost its secular credentials: Arif Khan Satish Misra The grammar of vote bank politics—The Muslim community has suffered After the 2002 Gujarat violence, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.[14] During an election campaign in Uttar Pradesh, the BJP released an inflammatory CD targeting Muslims.[15] This was condemned by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) as playing the worst kind of vote bank politics.[16] Caste-based politics is also important in India; caste-based discrimination and the reservation system continue to be major issues that are hotly debated.[17][18]
Several political parties have been accused of using their political power to manipulate educational content in a revisionist manner. During the Janata Party government (1977–1979), the government was accused of being too sympathetic to the Muslim viewpoint. In 2002, the BJP-led NDA government tried to change the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) school textbooks through a new National Curriculum Framework.[19] The changes promoted Hindutva national mysticism, which conformed to a narrow sectarian and Hindu chauvinist ideology; some media referred to it as the "saffronisation" of textbooks, saffron being the colour of BJP flag. The next government, formed by the UPA and led by the Congress Party, pledged to de-saffronise textbooks. International Religious Freedom Report 2005 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor Hindu groups alleged that the UPA promoted Marxist and pro-Muslim biases in school curricula.[20][21]
Main articles: Communalism (South Asia)
Communal conflicts have periodically plagued India since it became independent in 1947. The roots of such strife lie largely in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, which emerged under the Raj and during the bloody Partition of India. Such conflict also stems from the competing ideologies of Hindu nationalism versus Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism; both are prevalent in parts of the Hindu and Muslim populations. Alongside other major Indian independence leaders, Mahatma Gandhi and his ''shanti sainiks'' ("peace soldiers") worked to quell early outbreaks of religious conflict in Bengal, including riots in Calcutta (now in West Bengal) and Noakhali District (in modern-day Bangladesh) that accompanied Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Direct Action Day, which was launched on 16 August 1946. These conflicts, waged largely with rocks and knives and accompanied by widespread looting and arson, were crude affairs. Explosives and firearms, which are rarely found in India, were far less likely to be used.[22]
Major post-independence communal conflicts include the 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, which followed the storming of the Harimandir Sahib by the Indian Army; heavy artillery, tanks, and helicopters were employed against the Sikh separatists hiding inside, causing heavy damage to Sikhism's holiest shrine. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, who sought independence for the proposed Sikh theocracy of Khalistan, was killed by Indian troops during the assault; in total, the assault caused the deaths of up to 3,000 soldiers, militants, and civilians.[23] This triggered Indira Gandhi's assassination by her outraged Sikh bodyguards on 31 October 1984, which set off a four-day period during which Sikhs were massacred; some estimates state that more than 4,000 were killed. Other incidents include the 1992 Bombay Riots that followed the demolition of the Babri Mosque as a result of the Ayodhya debate, and the 2002 Gujarat violence that followed the Godhra Train Burning—in the latter, more than 2,000 Muslims were killed.[24] Terrorist activities such as the 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya, the 2006 Varanasi bombings, the 2006 Jama Masjid explosions, and the 11 July 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings are often blamed on communalism. Lesser incidents plague many towns and villages; representative was the killing of five people in Mau, Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.
1. Among Wealthy Nations ... U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion
2. The Constitution of India Art 25-28. Retrieved on 22 April 2007.
3. The Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976
4.
5. V. S. Apte, ''A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary'', p. 240.
6. Bhattacharyya, N. N. ''History of the Tantric Religion''. Second Revised Edition. (Manohar: New Delhi, 1999) p. 174. ISBN 81-7304-025-7
7. Sister Nivedita & Ananda K.Coomaraswamy: Myths and Legends of the Hindus and Bhuddhists, Kolkata, 2001 ISBN 81-7505-197-3, p.3-4
8. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ah/Ahmadiyy.html
9. On right to freedom of religion and the plight of Ahmadiyas. Retrieved on April 10 2007.
10. http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch9.htm
11.
12.
13.
14. Togadia wants parties to stop 'vote bank politics'
15. BJP protests in campaign CD row
16. BJP’s true colours exposed once again, , , , People's Democracy,
17. Despair of the discriminated Dalits, Chadha M, , , ,
18. Turning point in India's caste war, Giridharadas A, , , ,
19. Communalisation of education: the history textbook controversy Mukherjee M, Mukherjee A
20. The politics of education in India: the need for a national debate Upadhyay R
21. Opposition in India: in search of genuine issues Upadhyay R
22. .
23. The Politics of Assassination: Case Studies and Analysis, , B, Nichols, Australasian Political Studies Association Conference, 2003
24. .
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The religious demographics of the Republic of India show a predominance of Hinduism (an umbrella term which includes many sub-denominations), accounting for 80% of the population. The second largest religion is Islam (13%).
The other natively Indian religions, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism taken together account for less than 3%.
About 2% of Indians adhere to Christianity.
Demographics
The following is the break-up of different religions in India by population:
| Religion | Persons | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| All Religions | 1,028,610,328 | 100.00% |
| Hindus | 827,578,868 | 80.456% |
| Muslims | 138,188,240 | 13.434% |
| Christians | 24,080,016 | 2.341% |
| Sikhs | 19,215,730 | 1.868% |
| Buddhists | 7,955,207 | 0.773% |
| Jains | 4,225,053 | 0.41% |
| Others | 6,639,626 | 0.645% |
| Religion not stated | 727,588 | 0.07% |
Source: The First Report on Religion: Census of India 2001 Tables: Profiles by main religions.
'α.' The data excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur
'β.' The data is "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir
More than nine-tenths of Indians state that religion plays a key role in their lives.[1] Though inter-religious marriages are generally taboo, Indians are generally tolerant of other religions and retain a secular outlook. Inter-community clashes have never found widespread support in the social mainstream, and it is generally perceived that its causes are political rather than ideological in nature. India's religious diversity extends to the highest levels of government; the Prime Minister of India is a Sikh, the President of India is a Hindu, and the chairperson of the ruling United Progressive Alliance (UPA) is a Christian. The Constitution of India declares the nation to be a secular republic that must uphold the right of citizens to freely worship and propagate any religion or faith.[2][3]
Indian subcontinent
The predominance of Hinduism in the Republic of India is a direct result of the 1947 Partition of India and the subsequent population movements. However, Hinduism is also the religion of the majority of the population of the Indian subcontinent considered as a whole. The distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of British India is (according to the CIA Factbook):
★ India: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M)
★ Pakistan: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M)
★ Bangladesh: 83% Muslim, 16% Hindu (150 M)
★ Myanmar: 89% Buddhist, 4% Muslim, 4% Christian (43 M)
★ Sri Lanka: 70% Buddhist, 7% Hindu, 7% Muslim, 7% Christian (20 M)
In total yielding 61% Hindus, 29% Muslims, 5% Buddhists, 2% Christians and 1% Sikhs.
Law
Main articles: Constitution of India, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India, Secularism in India
Jawaharlal Nehru as he signed the Constitution of India on 24 January 1950. Nehru was an atheist who supported Indian secularism.
The preamble to the Constitution of India proclaimed India a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic". The word ''secular'' was inserted into the Preamble by the Forty-second Amendment Act of 1976. It mandates equal treatment and tolerance of all religions. India does not have an official state religion; it enshrines the right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion. No religious instruction is imparted in government-supported schools. In S. R. Bommai vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India held that secularism was an integral tenet of the Constitution. Protecting secularism and federal fair play, Swami Praveen, , , Frontline,
The right to freedom of religion is a fundamental right according to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution also recommends establishment of a uniform civil code for its citizens as a Directive Principle.[4] However this has not been implemented until now. The Supreme Court has stated that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counterproductive to the unity of the nation, and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (''Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh, 1996''). Unifying personal laws In ''Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India (1994)'' the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ of mandamus against the government to introduce a common civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature. Where's the Uniform Civil Code? Arvind Lavakare
Religious communities continue to be governed by their own personal laws. Apart from Muslims, designated religious codes apply to Hindus, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews; for legal purposes, Buddhists and Sikhs are classified as Hindus and are subject to Hindu personal law. India, Republic of Civil laws for Muslims are based on ''Sharia'' law. The Code of Criminal Procedure is uniformly applied to all Indian citizens.
Religious communities
Hinduism
A Hindu is a person who practices good karma and bhakti for the achievement of moksha or mukti.
Hinduism is the largest religion in India, counting approximately 900 million adherents, comprising 80.4% of the population. Often considered a "way of life" rather than a religion, it arose in the Indian subcontinent during the period 2000-1500 BCE. The word Hindu, originally a geographical description, derives from the Sanskrit, ''Sindhu'', (the historical appellation for the river Indus), and refers to a person from the ''land of the river Sindhu''. The title Hindu was accepted by the followers of the religion (a.k.a. "Sanatan Dharma") because Hind (India) is their Fatherland and Holyland.
Hinduism differs from many religions in not having a single founder, a specific theological system, a single system of morality, or a central religious organization. The religion is ideologically tolerant and inclusive—qualities which have enabled it to co-exist with other religions over its long history. The main holy books of Hinduism are the Vedas (its foundation) and the Upanishads. Hindus are allowed to worship (or practice their bhagavat-dharma) God in any form and so many Hindus have even have a specific Purana for their deity (i.e. Kali Purana.)
''Astika'' (IAST:) is a Sanskrit adjective (and noun) that is derived from ''asti'' ("it is or exists")Monier-Williams, Monier, ''"Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary"'', Nataraj Books, 2006, ISBN 18-81338-58-4 meaning "believing" or "pious"[5]; or "one who believes in the existence (of God, of another world, etc.)." ''Nastika'' (''na'' (not) + '') is its negative, literally meaning "not believing" or "not pious". As used in Indian philosophy ''nastika'' refers to belief in Vedic-derived discipline, not belief or lack of belief in theism. In popular language the term ''nastika'' also means "atheist". As N. N. Bhattacharyya writes:
The followers of Tantra are often branded as Nāstika by the upholders of the Vedic tradition. The term Nāstika does not denote an atheist. It is applied only to those who do not believe in the Vedas. The Sāṅkhyas and Mīmāṃsakas do not believe in God, buth they believe in the Vedas and hence they are not Nāstikas. Many Buddhists, Jains, and Cārvākas do not believe in the Vedic principles; hence they are Nāstikas. [6]
Hinduism is, in fact, an immense synthesis, deriving its elements from a hundred different directions, and incorporating every conceivable motive of religion. The motives of Hindu religion are manifold. Earth-worship, sun-worship, nature-worship, sky-worship, honour paid to heroes and ancestors, mother-worship, father-worship, prayers for the dead, the mystic association of certain plants and animals: and all these and more are included within Hinduism. And each marks some single age of the past, with its characteristic conjunction or invasion of races formerly alien to one another. They are all welded together now to form a great whole. Now and again in history a great systematizing impulse has striven to cast all or part of recognized belief into the form of an organic whole. [7]
Hinduism is polytheist because many of it consists of of practitioners who worship different forms of God, although it is monotheist because it advocates the belief in one God, it is pantheistic because it believe all things of the universe, including the Devtas are a part and parcel of God.
Hinduism advocates that God has three major aspects; to create, sustain and destroy. Hinduism teaches that both God and the soul are eternal, although God is infallible and that it is the aim of the human to reach God.
It follows the Vedic calender. The Rig Veda is the foundation of Hinduism, although a Hindu does not require to believe that Veda is the central source of knowledge, rather each Hindu is to seek out spiritual knowledge wherever they can.
Ayyavazhi
:''Main article: Ayyavazhi''
Ayyavazhi is a religion which originated in south India in the 19th century. Officially, in India, it is considered a sect within Hinduism, and its followers are counted as Hindus in the census. Ayyavazhi is also viewed as a Hindu Renaissance. Ayyavazhi has transformed itself into a distinctive and recognisable religion, having made its presence felt in southern India starting in the mid 1830s. Ayyavazhi served initially also as a reformatory system in the society of Travancore, which was noted, unlike any other part of India, for the rule of caste order. It has more than 8000 worship centers throughout India, mostly in the southern parts of Tamil Nadu and south Kerala.
Alhough it shares ideas with Hinduism, the Ayyavazhi scriptures reformulate them into versions distinct from Hinduism. The religion has separate mythology, theology, holy places, worship centers and religious headquarters.
Islam
The Jama Masjid,
Delhi is one of the largest mosques in the world.
Delhi is one of the largest mosques in the world.
Main articles: Islam in India
Islam arrived in India as early as the 8th century A.D. During the following years, Islam contributed greatly to the cultural enhancement of an already rich Indian culture, shaping not only the shape of Northern Indian classical music (Hindustani, a melding of Indian and Middle Eastern elements) but encouraging a grand tradition of Urdu (a melding of Hindi, Arabic and Persian languages) literature, both religious and secular. As of 2001, there were about 138 million Muslims in India (the third largest population in the world, after Pakistan and Indonesia), who are scattered throughout the country, with the highest concentrations in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, Kerala, West Bengal and parts of the Gangetic plain. Uttar Pradesh, in the Gangetic plain, has the highest population of Muslims in one state. Muslims make up majority population in the state of Jammu & Kashmir and the union territory of Lakshadweep Islands. There are about 75 sects of Islam followed in India. Sunni Islam is the denomination practiced by the majority of Indian Muslims, followed by Shia Islam.
Ahmadiyya
Main articles: Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya is a relatively small messianic movement founded in 1899 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.[8] The majority of Ahmadis live in northern India, although many are found in New Delhi, Kashmir, and Uttar Pradesh. There are approximately one million Ahmadis in India. The Ahmadiyya's identify themselves as Muslims and there has been a court decision in which this was upheld.[9]
Jainism
A Jain temple in Kochi
Jainism, along with Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, is one of the four major Dharmic religions originating in India. Dating back to the first millennium BCE, the religion was well in place during the lifetime of its 24th tirthankar, Mahavira. Today, Jains are extremely well-represented in the major professions, despite comprising only 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's population. According to the 2001 Census of India, Jains have the highest literacy rate of any religious group—94.1%, in contrast to the national average of 64.8%.
Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as ''Buddha Dharma'', originated in northern India in the 6th century BCE, and rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Since, the religion was adopted mostly by the upper classes, its numbers in India remained small—in the hundreds of thousands. While the exact cause of the decline of Buddhism in India after the 9th century CE is not known, Vedanta reform movements, which incorporated Buddhist elements into Hinduism, are thought to have contributed to it, as did Islamic invasions of India, which devastated Buddhist monasteries, libraries, and statuary.
The 20th century saw a resurgence of Buddhism in India. In 1956, B. R. Ambedkar, the main architect of the Indian constitution, and thousands of his Dalit followers converted to Buddhism to protest the Indian caste system. Buddhists form a large population in the Indian states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir. In all, around 9 million Buddhists live in India today.
Most of the Buddhists in India have Hindu names.
Sikhism
:''Main article: Sikhism in India''
The Harimandir Sahib, known popularly as the Golden Temple, is a sacred shrine for Sikhs.
Sikhism, was founded in India's northwestern Punjab region about 400 years ago and Sikhs form the majority population in the state of Punjab. As of 2001 there were 19.3 million Sikhs in India. Many of today's Sikhs are situated in Punjab, the largest Sikh province in the world and the ancestral home of Sikhs. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in the neighboring states of Haryana and New Delhi. The most famous Sikh temple is the Golden Temple, located in Amritsar, Punjab. Many Sikhs serve in the Indian Army. The current prime minister of India, Manmohan Singh, is a Sikh. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority.
Christianity
Main articles: Christianity in India
Christianity, according to tradition arrived in India in the first century (c.52-85AD) through the apostle Thomas. The chronicle of his mission in India is recorded in the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas, and the lesser-known Apocalypse of Thomas. In these books, Judas Thomas is regarded as the "Twin" of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, alleging that since this Thomas was identical in look to Christ, he was equal in piety. The apostle completed the conversion of a Malabar prince, and founded a church on the prince's grounds. According to the Gospel of Thomas, he later was buried in the foundation of that building, located by tradition near Mumbai (formerly Bombay).
Christianity was later consolidated in India, by the arrival of Syriac Jewish-Christians now known as Knanaya people in the second century A.D. This ancient ethnic Christian community of Kerala is known as Nasrani or Syrian Christian. The Nasrani people and especially the Knanaya people within the Nasranis have strong Jewish historical ties. Their form of Christianity is one of the most ancient: Syriac Christianity which is also known as the Eastern Orthodox Church and referred to in India as Saint Thomas Christians. It should be noted that the term "Saint Thomas Christians" is a loose term that many non-Nasranis Christians in Kerala are often labelled.
Roman Catholicism reached India during the period of European colonization, which began in 1498 when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived on the Malabar coast. There are over 17 million Catholics in India, which represents 1.5% of the total population. Christian missionary activity increased in the early 1800s. Today Christianity is the third largest religion of India making up 2 - 2.9% of the population. Christianity is prevalent in South & North-east India. Christians make up majority population in the states of Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram. All these states are tribal and have extremely low population when compared to the larger states in India.
Judaism
The old Paradesi synagogue in Kochi.
Main articles: Jews in India
Trade contacts between the Mediterranean region and the west coast of India probably led to the presence of small Jewish settlements in India as long ago as the early first millennium B.C. In Kerala a community of Jews tracing its origin to the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 has remained associated with the cities of Kodungallur (formerly known as Cranganore) and Kochi (formerly known as Cochin) for at least 1,000 years. The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, rebuilt in 1568, is in the architectural style of Kerala but preserves the ritual style of the Sephardic rite, with Babylonian and Yemenite influence as well.
The Jews of Kochi, concentrated mostly in the old "Jew Town," were completely integrated into local culture, speaking Malayalam and taking local names while preserving their knowledge of Hebrew and contacts with Southwest Asia. A separate community of Jews, called the Bene Israel, had lived along the Konkan Coast in and around Bombay, Pune, and Ahmadabad for almost 2,000 years. Unlike the Kochi Jews, they became a village-based society and maintained little contact with other Jewish communities. They always remained within the Orthodox Jewish fold, practising the Sephardi rite without rabbis, with the synagogue as the centre of religious and cultural life. Following trade routes established by the expansion of the British Empire, a third group of Jews, the Baghdadi Jews immigrated to India, settling primarily in Bombay and Calcutta. Many of the Baghdadi traders became wealthy and participated prominently in the economic leadership of these growing cities. As a result of religious pressure elsewhere, including the forced conversions of Mashhad (''see Muslim Jew''), their numbers were increased by religious refugees. The Baghdadis came mostly from the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and Afghanistan.
The population of the Kochi Jews, always small, had decreased from 5,000 in 1951 to about fifty in the early 1990s. During the same period, the Bene Israel decreased from about 20,000 to 5,000, while the Baghdadi Jews declined from 5,000 to 250. Emigration to Australia, Israel, the United Kingdom, and North America accounts for most of this decline. According to the 1981 Indian census, there were 5,618 Jews in India, down from 5,825 in 1971. The 1991 census showed a further decline to 5,271, most of whom lived in Maharashtra and Kerala.
The Knanaya and Nasrani Christian groups also have strong historical ties to Judaism.
Zoroastrianism
Parsi ''Navjote'' ceremony (rites of admission into the Zoroastrian faith)
Main articles: Parsi
Zoroastrianism was founded by the Magi known as Zoroaster. His religion was popular on the Greater Iran.
Subsequent to the fall of the Persian Empire, after which Zoroastrianism was gradually supplanted by Islam, many Zoroastrians fled to other regions in the hope of preserving their religious tradition. Among them were several groups who migrated to Gujarat, on the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis.
In contrast to their co-religionists elsewhere, in India the Zoroastrians enjoyed tolerance and even admiration from other religious communities. From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society, partly due to the divisive strategy of British colonialism which favored certain minorities. As such, Parsis are generally more affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most Anglicised and "Westernised" of Indian minority groups. They have also played an instrumental role in the economic development of the country over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata, Godrej, and Wadia families.
As of the census of 2001, the Parsis represent approximately 0.06% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of Mumbai (previously known as Bombay).
Bahá'í Faith
:''Main article: Bahá'ís in India''
About 2.2 million people in India follow the Bahá'í Faith. They are the largest community of Bahá'ís in the world. The Lotus Temple in New Delhi is one of the main symbols of the Bahá'í Faith in India. Bahá'ís are spread all over India and have recently increased in number. The Bahai see the icons of all religions whether they be Krishna or Mohammed, as the avatar or incarnation of God.
Atheism and agnosticism
India is also home to a considerable number of atheists and agnostics. Bhagat Singh, one of India's prominent freedom fighters, was an atheist and yet, a member of the Arya Samaj.
Tribal religions
There are various tribal religions in India followed by many people. Many of these tribals practice Hinduism as well to achieve Moksha or Mukti.[10] However, they have some traditions separate from Hinduism. Generally the number is either quite small or the people are found in the remotest area thus they are overlooked during census-taking. However, there are a number of traditional religions praciced in India, including 'Donyi-Polo' and 'Rangfrah'. These religions are mainly followed in Arunachal Pradesh. 'Animism' is also followed by many tribes in southern India and Bihar.
'Mahima' is another Hindu tradition followed in India which developed in the tribal regions of eastern and central India. This religion is not very common but is unknown to most of the people in India. It is mainly followed by the tribal people of Orissa. The full name of the religion is "Satya Mahima Alekha Dharma", which means the true path of indescribable grace. The religion is essentially monotheistic in nature. Mahimaa religion strictly prescribes the caste system, idol worship. The religion strictly forbids adultery, the consumption of any intoxicants, violence, and the consumption of any flesh apart from fish. Eating of food after the sunset is also a taboo. In its essence it is essentially anti-hierarchical and is anarchistic in its criticism of the existing state system of late nineteenth/early twentieth century tribal dominated Western Orissa. The religion has a monastic order. But the members of the monastic order, like Buddhist monks, do not constitute a priestly class and have no control over the lay practitioners. They have to lead a life of poverty, celibacy, piety and constant movement, as the monks are not allwoed to sleep in the same place on two consecutive nights.
Sectarianism
Politics
Religious ideology, particularly that expressed by the Hindutva movement, has strongly influenced Indian politics in the last quarter of the 20th century. Many of the elements underlying India's casteism and communalism originated during the rule of the British Raj, particularly after the late 19th century; the authorities and others often politicised religion.[11] The Indian Councils Act of 1909 (widely known as the Morley-Minto Reforms Act), which established separate Hindu and Muslim electorates for the Imperial Legislature and provincial councils, was particularly divisive. It was blamed for increasing tensions between the two communities.[11] Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes, the Constitution of India included provisions for affirmative action for certain sections of Indian society. Growing disenchantment with the Hindu caste system has led thousands of Dalits (also referred to as "Untouchables") to embrace Buddhism and Christianity in recent decades. Dalits in conversion ceremony In response, many states ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) introduced laws that made them more difficult; they assert that such conversions are often forced or allured. Constitution doesn’t permit forced conversions: Naqvi, , , , BJP Today, The BJP, a Hindu nationalist party, gained widespread media attention after its leaders associated themselves with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and other prominent issues.[11]
A well known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics, meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community. Both the Congress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. The Shah Bano case, a divorce lawsuit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the Supreme Court's decision. There have been allegations that sensing an consolidation of Hindu votes against the Congress, its Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, ordered the opening of locks in the Ram Temple at Ayodhya to appease the Hindus. Congress has lost its secular credentials: Arif Khan Satish Misra The grammar of vote bank politics—The Muslim community has suffered After the 2002 Gujarat violence, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.[14] During an election campaign in Uttar Pradesh, the BJP released an inflammatory CD targeting Muslims.[15] This was condemned by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) as playing the worst kind of vote bank politics.[16] Caste-based politics is also important in India; caste-based discrimination and the reservation system continue to be major issues that are hotly debated.[17][18]
Education
Several political parties have been accused of using their political power to manipulate educational content in a revisionist manner. During the Janata Party government (1977–1979), the government was accused of being too sympathetic to the Muslim viewpoint. In 2002, the BJP-led NDA government tried to change the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) school textbooks through a new National Curriculum Framework.[19] The changes promoted Hindutva national mysticism, which conformed to a narrow sectarian and Hindu chauvinist ideology; some media referred to it as the "saffronisation" of textbooks, saffron being the colour of BJP flag. The next government, formed by the UPA and led by the Congress Party, pledged to de-saffronise textbooks. International Religious Freedom Report 2005 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor Hindu groups alleged that the UPA promoted Marxist and pro-Muslim biases in school curricula.[20][21]
Conflicts
Main articles: Communalism (South Asia)
Aftermath of Hindu-Muslim clashes in Calcutta following the 1946 Direct Action Day.
Communal conflicts have periodically plagued India since it became independent in 1947. The roots of such strife lie largely in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, which emerged under the Raj and during the bloody Partition of India. Such conflict also stems from the competing ideologies of Hindu nationalism versus Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism; both are prevalent in parts of the Hindu and Muslim populations. Alongside other major Indian independence leaders, Mahatma Gandhi and his ''shanti sainiks'' ("peace soldiers") worked to quell early outbreaks of religious conflict in Bengal, including riots in Calcutta (now in West Bengal) and Noakhali District (in modern-day Bangladesh) that accompanied Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Direct Action Day, which was launched on 16 August 1946. These conflicts, waged largely with rocks and knives and accompanied by widespread looting and arson, were crude affairs. Explosives and firearms, which are rarely found in India, were far less likely to be used.[22]
Many of Ahmedabad's buildings were set on fire by largely Hindu mobs during the 2002 Gujarat violence.
Major post-independence communal conflicts include the 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, which followed the storming of the Harimandir Sahib by the Indian Army; heavy artillery, tanks, and helicopters were employed against the Sikh separatists hiding inside, causing heavy damage to Sikhism's holiest shrine. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, who sought independence for the proposed Sikh theocracy of Khalistan, was killed by Indian troops during the assault; in total, the assault caused the deaths of up to 3,000 soldiers, militants, and civilians.[23] This triggered Indira Gandhi's assassination by her outraged Sikh bodyguards on 31 October 1984, which set off a four-day period during which Sikhs were massacred; some estimates state that more than 4,000 were killed. Other incidents include the 1992 Bombay Riots that followed the demolition of the Babri Mosque as a result of the Ayodhya debate, and the 2002 Gujarat violence that followed the Godhra Train Burning—in the latter, more than 2,000 Muslims were killed.[24] Terrorist activities such as the 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya, the 2006 Varanasi bombings, the 2006 Jama Masjid explosions, and the 11 July 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings are often blamed on communalism. Lesser incidents plague many towns and villages; representative was the killing of five people in Mau, Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.
Notes
1. Among Wealthy Nations ... U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion
2. The Constitution of India Art 25-28. Retrieved on 22 April 2007.
3. The Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976
4.
5. V. S. Apte, ''A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary'', p. 240.
6. Bhattacharyya, N. N. ''History of the Tantric Religion''. Second Revised Edition. (Manohar: New Delhi, 1999) p. 174. ISBN 81-7304-025-7
7. Sister Nivedita & Ananda K.Coomaraswamy: Myths and Legends of the Hindus and Bhuddhists, Kolkata, 2001 ISBN 81-7505-197-3, p.3-4
8. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ah/Ahmadiyy.html
9. On right to freedom of religion and the plight of Ahmadiyas. Retrieved on April 10 2007.
10. http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch9.htm
11.
12.
13.
14. Togadia wants parties to stop 'vote bank politics'
15. BJP protests in campaign CD row
16. BJP’s true colours exposed once again, , , , People's Democracy,
17. Despair of the discriminated Dalits, Chadha M, , , ,
18. Turning point in India's caste war, Giridharadas A, , , ,
19. Communalisation of education: the history textbook controversy Mukherjee M, Mukherjee A
20. The politics of education in India: the need for a national debate Upadhyay R
21. Opposition in India: in search of genuine issues Upadhyay R
22. .
23. The Politics of Assassination: Case Studies and Analysis, , B, Nichols, Australasian Political Studies Association Conference, 2003
24. .
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