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(Redirected from Republic of Latvia)
'Latvia' (historically 'Lattonia', 'Lettonia', or 'Lettland'), officially the 'Republic of Latvia' (Latvian: ''Latvija'' or ''Latvijas Republika'', Livonian: ''Lemō''), is a country in Northern Europe. Latvia shares land borders with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south — and both Russia and Belarus to the east. It is separated from Sweden in the west by the Baltic Sea. The capital of Latvia is Riga (Latvian: ''Rīga''). Latvia has been a member state of the European Union since May 1, 2004.
Main articles: History of Latvia
The territory of Latvia has been populated since 9000 BCE with the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settling on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea around the third millennium BCE (3000 BCE).[1] By 900 CE, four Baltic tribal cultures had developed: Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: ''kurši'', ''latgaļi'', ''sēļi'' and ''zemgaļi'').
Across Europe, Latvia's coast was known for its amber. The ancient Balts traded Latvian amber with Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Even today it is frequently used in traditional Latvian jewellery.
At the end of the 12th century, traders from Western Europe often visited Latvia, setting out on trading journeys along Latvia's longest river, the Daugava, to Russia.
Christian missionaries arrived in 1180. As the Balts did not readily convert and strongly opposed the christening, German Crusaders were sent into Latvia to convert the pagan population.[2] By 1211, Christianity had effective control with the foundation stone for the Dome Cathedral in Riga laid.
In the 1200s, a confederation of feudal nations called Livonia developed under German rule. Livonia included today's Latvia and Southern Estonia. In 1282, Riga and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera were included in the Hanseatic League. From this time, Riga became an important point in west-east trading. Riga, being the centre of the eastern Baltic region, formed close cultural contacts with Western Europe.
The 1500s were a time of great changes for the inhabitants of Latvia, notable for the reformation and the collapse of the Livonian nation. After the Livonian War (1558–1583) today's Latvian territory came under Polish-Lithuanian rule. The Lutheran faith was accepted in Kurzeme, Zemgale and Vidzeme, but the Roman Catholic faith maintained its dominance in Latgale and continues to do so today.
The seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries saw a struggle between Poland, Sweden and Russia for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. Most of Polish Livonia, including Vidzeme, came under Swedish rule with the Truce of Altmark in 1629. Under the Swedish rule, serfdom was eased and a network of schools was established for the peasantry.
The Treaty of Nystad ending the Great Northern War in 1721 gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate). The Latgale region remained part of Poland as Inflanty until 1772, when it was joined to Russia. The Duchy of Courland became a Russian province (the Courland Governorate) in 1795, bringing all of what is now Latvia into Imperial Russia.
The promises Peter the Great made to the Baltic German nobility at the fall of Riga in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad and known as "the Capitulations," largely reversed the Swedish reforms. The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819. In practice, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the nobility because it dispossessed the peasants of their land without compensation. The social structure changed dramatically, with a class of independent farmers establishing itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, landless peasants numbering 591 000 in 1897, a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie. The Young Latvians (Latvian: ''Jaunlatvieši'') movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order. Russification began in Latgale after the January Uprising in 1863 and spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s. Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Revolution, which took on a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.
World War I devastated the country. Demands for self-determination were at first confined to autonomy, but full independence was proclaimed in Riga on November 18, 1918, by the People's Council of Latvia, Kārlis Ulmanis becoming the head of the provisional government. The War of Independence that followed was a very chaotic period in Latvia's history. By the spring of 1919 there were actually three governments — Ulmanis' government; the Soviet Latvian government led by Pēteris Stučka, whose forces, supported by the Red Army, occupied almost all of the country; and the Baltic German government of "Baltic Duchy" headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by Baltische Landeswehr and German Freikorps unit Iron Division. Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Cēsis in June 1919, and a massive attack by a German and Russian force under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Polish, Latvian, and German troops in early 1920.
A freely elected Constituent Assembly was convened on May 1, 1920 and adopted a liberal constitution, the ''Satversme'', in February 1922. This was partly suspended by Ulmanis after his coup in 1934, but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then it has been amended and is the constitution still in use in Latvia today. With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1930 that percentage had been reduced to 23.2%. The extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level already in 1923. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of economy, but it soon suffered the effects of the Great Depression. Though Latvia showed signs of economic recovery and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup on May 15, 1934, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940. Most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis' government and Nazi Germany after the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. On October 5, 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a "mutual assistance" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station 25,000 troops on Latvian territory. On June 16, 1940, Vyacheslav Molotov presented the Latvian representative in Moscow with an ultimatum accusing Latvia of violations of that pact, and on June 17 great numbers of Soviet forces occupied the country. Fraudulent elections for a "People's Saeima" were held, and a puppet government headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins led Latvia into the USSR. The annexation was formalised on August 5, 1940.
The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents — prior to the German invasion, in less than a year, at least 27,586 persons were arrested; most were deported, and about 945 persons were shot. While under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of ''Reichskommissariat Ostland''. Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by occupation authority actively participated in the Holocaust. More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 70,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation. Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, including in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS, most of them conscripted by the occupying Nazi and Soviet authorities. Refusal to join the occupying army resulted in imprisonment, threats to relatives, or even death.
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further mass deportations followed as the country was forcibly collectivised and Sovietised; 42,975 persons were deported in 1949. Influx of labourers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started, and by 1959 the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%. During the Khrushchev Thaw, attempts by national communists led by Eduards Berklavs to gain a degree of autonomy for the republic and protect the rapidly deteriorating position of the Latvian language were suppressed. In 1989 the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the "Occupation of the Baltic States," in which it declared that the occupation was "not in accordance with law," and not the "will of the Soviet people". A national movement coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia took advantage of glasnost under Mikhail Gorbachev, opposed by the Interfront. On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR adopted the Declaration of the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, subject to a transition period that came to an end with Latvian independence on August 21, 1991, after the failure of the August Putsch. The Saeima, Latvia's parliament, was again elected in 1993, and Russia completed its military withdrawal in 1994. To this day Russia still refuses to recognise the historic fact of Latvia's occupation and falsely claims that Latvians decided to lose their statehood voluntarily, officially describing freedom fighters of 1944–1952 as "bandits" or "Nazis". However, the Russian position isn't recognised internationally.
The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and European Union, were achieved in 2004. Language and citizenship laws have been opposed by many Russophones (citizenship was not automatically extended to former Soviet citizens who settled during the Soviet occupation). The government denationalised private property confiscated by the Soviet rule, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatised most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. After a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia still has one of the lowest standards of living in the EU, though its economy has one of the highest growth rates.
Main articles: Politics of Latvia
The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the ''Saeima'', is elected by direct, popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the ''Saeima'' in a separate election also every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the ''Saeima''. This system also existed before the Second World War.
In a nation-wide referendum on September 20, 2003, 66.9% of those taking part voted in favour of joining the European Union. Latvia became a full-fledged member of the European Union on May 1, 2004. Latvia has been a NATO member since March 29, 2004. Although membership in the EU and NATO were the major goals of Latvia through the 1990s, Latvian politicians today are often criticised for being unable to gain benefits out of Latvia's membership.
Latvia has had strained relations with Russian Federation due to Russian discontent with Latvian language and citizenship policies, as well as Latvia's requests for Russia to recognise it as continuous with the first Latvian Republic and acknowledge consequences of Soviet occupation.
Main articles: Districts of Latvia, Subdivisions of Latvia
Latvia is divided into 26 districts (''rajoni''). There are also seven cities (''lielpilsētas'') that have a separate status. Latvia is also historically, culturally and constitutionally divided in four or more distinct regions.
★ Abrene District (1919 – 1940), the eastern part of which was annexed to Russia in 1944.
The legal status of the annexed portion is disputed — the western part of the former district is now in Balvi District.
Main articles: Geography of Latvia
Located on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, Latvia lies on the East European Plain. It consists of fertile, low-lying plains, largely covered by forest, mostly pines, the highest point being the Gaiziņkalns at 311.6 m (1,020 ft). Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, fox, beaver and wolves.[3] The Latvian climate is humid, continental and temperate in nature, with temperatures varying on average from -5 °C to +15°C, providing warm-water ports and water to more than 3,000 lakes and over 12,000 rivers, only seventeen of which are longer than 100 kilometers (sixty miles). The major rivers include the Daugava, the Lielupe, the Gauja, and the Salaca. An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country. Latvia's coastline extends for 531 kilometers. Its neighbors include Estonia to the north (267 kilometers of common border), Lithuania to the south (453 kilometers), Belarus to the southeast (141 kilometers), and Russia to the east (217 kilometers). Prior to World War II, Latvia bordered eastern Poland, but as a result of boundary changes by the Soviet Union, this part of Poland was attached to Belarus. Latvia de facto lost a part of the former Abrene District (2% of its territory) to Russia in the 1940s.
Main articles: Economy of Latvia
Since the year 2000 Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.[4] In 2006, annual GDP growth was 11.9% and inflation was 6.2%. Unemployment was 8.5% — almost unchanged compared to the previous two years. However, it has recently dropped to 6.1%, partly due to active economic migration, mostly to the Republic of Ireland and United Kingdom. Some believe that Latvia's flat tax is responsible for its high growth rate, but this is not universally accepted. Privatisation has been mostly completed, except for some of the large state-owned utilities. Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004).
The fast growing economy is regarded as a possible economic bubble, because it is driven mostly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which increases at amount approximately 5% a month (due to lack of tax legislation that could prevent speculations in real estate market), are perceived to be too high for the economy, which mainly produces low valued goods and raw materials. As stated by Ober-Haus, a real estate company operating in Poland and the Baltics, the prices of some segments of real estate market have been stabilised as of summer 2006 and some experts expect serious reduction of real estate prices in the near future.
The government introduced special program to reduce inflation and remain high growth rates recently. The main points of the plan are:
★ To create a non-deficit country budget for the current 2007 year and a budget with a surplus for 2008 and beyond;
★ to tax any transaction concerning real estate that has been in a person's possession less than three years;
★ to increase control of credit;
★ to increase energy effectiveness in homes and business to guard against possible rises in energy costs, and
★ to increase work productivity and stimulate competition in business.
Latvia plans to introduce the Euro as the country's currency but, due to the inflation being above EMU's guidelines, this is unlikely to happen before 2010.
Main articles: Demographics of Latvia
Latvia's population has been multiethnic for centuries, though the demographics shifted dramatically in the twentieth century due to the World Wars, the emigration and removal of Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet Union.
Latvians and Livonians, the indigenous peoples of Latvia, now form about 60% of the population; 28% of the inhabitants are Russian. The Breakdown of the Residents of Latvia as to Nationality Approximately 56% of the ethnic Russians living in Latvia are citizens of Latvia. People who arrived whilst Latvia was occupied by the USSR, and their descendants born before 1991, must be naturalised to receive Latvian citizenship. Over 100,000 persons have been naturalised in recent years.
In some large cities, e.g., Daugavpils and Rēzekne, Russians and other minorities outnumber Latvians. Minorities from other countries such as Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, etc., also live in Latvia. The share of ethnic Latvians had fallen from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.[5] In 2005 there were even fewer Latvians than in 1989, though their share of the population was larger — 1,357,099 (58.8% of the inhabitants).
The official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language group of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of Baltic-Finnic subbranch of Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian language — a dialect of Latvian — is also protected by Latvian law as historical variation of Latvian language. Russian is by far the most widespread minority language, also spoken, or at least understood, by large sections of the non-Russian population.
The majority of the population is Christian, although only 7% attend religious services regularly.[6] The largest groups in 2006 are:
★ Roman Catholic — 500,000,
★ Lutheran — 450,000
★ Eastern Orthodox — 350,000[7]
Lutheranism was much stronger before the Soviet occupation, when the majority was Lutheran, but since then Lutheranism in all the Baltic States has declined to a much greater extent than has Roman Catholicism. There are 182 known Muslims living in Latvia; total number of Muslims in Latvia, however, is estimated to be much larger — from 500 to 5,000. There are also Jews (9,743 in 2006) in Latvia.
There are more than 600 Latvian neopagans Dievturi (The Godskeepers) whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.[8] About 40% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion and may be nontheist.
Between the thirteenth and nineteenth century, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class. They developed a distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and Russian influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the USA, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life. Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions, for example in one of the most popular celebrations today which is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice, celebrated on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.
In the nineteenth century Latvian nationalist movements emerged promoting, Latvian culture and encouraging Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century is often regarded as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.
After incorporation into the USSR, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the Socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre and scenography have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.
★ Environmental Sustainability Index: 15/146
★ Reporters Without Borders World-wide press freedom index: 10/168
★ Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index: 49/163
★ Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom: 39/157
★ Latvia in Transition, , Juris, Dreifelds, Cambridge University Press, 1996,
★ Latvia: Country & People, Rutkis, Jānis (ed.), , , Latvian National Foundation, 1967,
★ The Story of Latvia: A Historical Survey, , Arveds, Švābe, Latvian National Foundation, 1949,
★ These Names Accuse: Nominal List of Latvians Deported to Soviet Russia, , , , Latvian National Foundation, 1982,
1. Data: 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE
2. The Crusaders
3. List of species
4. Growth rate of real GDP per capita
5. About Latvia
6. Trust in Religious Institutions does not convey to Church Attendance Eunice K. Y. Or
7. Na Łotwie działa ponad 1,2 tys. wspólnot religijnych
8. Statistics of approved parishes in Latvia
'Government'
★ Cabinet of Ministers
★ Latvian Parliament — The website of Latvijas Republikas Saeima
★ Latvian President's Chancery
★ Ministry of Foreign Affairs
★ Central Election Commission of Latvia
★ National Agency of Latvian Language Training
★ National Statistics Agency — Statistical information on economical, demographic, social, and environmental phenomena and processes of Latvia
'Country profiles'
★ Latvia Country Study from the United States Library of Congress
★ Latvia from The World Factbook
★ Latvia Travel Profile from Lonely Planet
★ Latvia Country Profile from BBC News
★
'Other'
★ Latvija.lv — The official portal of Latvia by the Secretariat of Special Assignments Minister for Electronic Government Affairs
★ Latvia Tourism Brochures — Official publications by the European Travel Commission
★ The Latvian Institute — Publications on Latvian society, economy, culture and history
★ The Constitution of Latvia — Translated by the Latvia Law Institute, published online by the Human Rights Institute of the University of Latvia
★
'Latvia' (historically 'Lattonia', 'Lettonia', or 'Lettland'), officially the 'Republic of Latvia' (Latvian: ''Latvija'' or ''Latvijas Republika'', Livonian: ''Lemō''), is a country in Northern Europe. Latvia shares land borders with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south — and both Russia and Belarus to the east. It is separated from Sweden in the west by the Baltic Sea. The capital of Latvia is Riga (Latvian: ''Rīga''). Latvia has been a member state of the European Union since May 1, 2004.
| Contents |
| History |
| Politics |
| Administrative divisions |
| Geography |
| Economy |
| Demographics |
| Nationalities |
| Languages |
| Religion |
| Culture |
| International rankings |
| See also |
| Bibliography |
| References |
| External links |
History
Main articles: History of Latvia
The territory of Latvia has been populated since 9000 BCE with the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settling on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea around the third millennium BCE (3000 BCE).[1] By 900 CE, four Baltic tribal cultures had developed: Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: ''kurši'', ''latgaļi'', ''sēļi'' and ''zemgaļi'').
Across Europe, Latvia's coast was known for its amber. The ancient Balts traded Latvian amber with Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Even today it is frequently used in traditional Latvian jewellery.
Christian missionaries arrived in 1180. As the Balts did not readily convert and strongly opposed the christening, German Crusaders were sent into Latvia to convert the pagan population.[2] By 1211, Christianity had effective control with the foundation stone for the Dome Cathedral in Riga laid.
In the 1200s, a confederation of feudal nations called Livonia developed under German rule. Livonia included today's Latvia and Southern Estonia. In 1282, Riga and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera were included in the Hanseatic League. From this time, Riga became an important point in west-east trading. Riga, being the centre of the eastern Baltic region, formed close cultural contacts with Western Europe.
The 1500s were a time of great changes for the inhabitants of Latvia, notable for the reformation and the collapse of the Livonian nation. After the Livonian War (1558–1583) today's Latvian territory came under Polish-Lithuanian rule. The Lutheran faith was accepted in Kurzeme, Zemgale and Vidzeme, but the Roman Catholic faith maintained its dominance in Latgale and continues to do so today.
The seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries saw a struggle between Poland, Sweden and Russia for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. Most of Polish Livonia, including Vidzeme, came under Swedish rule with the Truce of Altmark in 1629. Under the Swedish rule, serfdom was eased and a network of schools was established for the peasantry.
The Treaty of Nystad ending the Great Northern War in 1721 gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate). The Latgale region remained part of Poland as Inflanty until 1772, when it was joined to Russia. The Duchy of Courland became a Russian province (the Courland Governorate) in 1795, bringing all of what is now Latvia into Imperial Russia.
The promises Peter the Great made to the Baltic German nobility at the fall of Riga in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad and known as "the Capitulations," largely reversed the Swedish reforms. The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819. In practice, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the nobility because it dispossessed the peasants of their land without compensation. The social structure changed dramatically, with a class of independent farmers establishing itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, landless peasants numbering 591 000 in 1897, a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie. The Young Latvians (Latvian: ''Jaunlatvieši'') movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order. Russification began in Latgale after the January Uprising in 1863 and spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s. Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Revolution, which took on a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.
World War I devastated the country. Demands for self-determination were at first confined to autonomy, but full independence was proclaimed in Riga on November 18, 1918, by the People's Council of Latvia, Kārlis Ulmanis becoming the head of the provisional government. The War of Independence that followed was a very chaotic period in Latvia's history. By the spring of 1919 there were actually three governments — Ulmanis' government; the Soviet Latvian government led by Pēteris Stučka, whose forces, supported by the Red Army, occupied almost all of the country; and the Baltic German government of "Baltic Duchy" headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by Baltische Landeswehr and German Freikorps unit Iron Division. Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Cēsis in June 1919, and a massive attack by a German and Russian force under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Polish, Latvian, and German troops in early 1920.
A freely elected Constituent Assembly was convened on May 1, 1920 and adopted a liberal constitution, the ''Satversme'', in February 1922. This was partly suspended by Ulmanis after his coup in 1934, but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then it has been amended and is the constitution still in use in Latvia today. With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1930 that percentage had been reduced to 23.2%. The extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level already in 1923. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of economy, but it soon suffered the effects of the Great Depression. Though Latvia showed signs of economic recovery and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup on May 15, 1934, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940. Most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis' government and Nazi Germany after the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. On October 5, 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a "mutual assistance" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station 25,000 troops on Latvian territory. On June 16, 1940, Vyacheslav Molotov presented the Latvian representative in Moscow with an ultimatum accusing Latvia of violations of that pact, and on June 17 great numbers of Soviet forces occupied the country. Fraudulent elections for a "People's Saeima" were held, and a puppet government headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins led Latvia into the USSR. The annexation was formalised on August 5, 1940.
The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents — prior to the German invasion, in less than a year, at least 27,586 persons were arrested; most were deported, and about 945 persons were shot. While under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of ''Reichskommissariat Ostland''. Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by occupation authority actively participated in the Holocaust. More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 70,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation. Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, including in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS, most of them conscripted by the occupying Nazi and Soviet authorities. Refusal to join the occupying army resulted in imprisonment, threats to relatives, or even death.
The statue of Liberty atop the Freedom Monument in Riga
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further mass deportations followed as the country was forcibly collectivised and Sovietised; 42,975 persons were deported in 1949. Influx of labourers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started, and by 1959 the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%. During the Khrushchev Thaw, attempts by national communists led by Eduards Berklavs to gain a degree of autonomy for the republic and protect the rapidly deteriorating position of the Latvian language were suppressed. In 1989 the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the "Occupation of the Baltic States," in which it declared that the occupation was "not in accordance with law," and not the "will of the Soviet people". A national movement coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia took advantage of glasnost under Mikhail Gorbachev, opposed by the Interfront. On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR adopted the Declaration of the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, subject to a transition period that came to an end with Latvian independence on August 21, 1991, after the failure of the August Putsch. The Saeima, Latvia's parliament, was again elected in 1993, and Russia completed its military withdrawal in 1994. To this day Russia still refuses to recognise the historic fact of Latvia's occupation and falsely claims that Latvians decided to lose their statehood voluntarily, officially describing freedom fighters of 1944–1952 as "bandits" or "Nazis". However, the Russian position isn't recognised internationally.
The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and European Union, were achieved in 2004. Language and citizenship laws have been opposed by many Russophones (citizenship was not automatically extended to former Soviet citizens who settled during the Soviet occupation). The government denationalised private property confiscated by the Soviet rule, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatised most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. After a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia still has one of the lowest standards of living in the EU, though its economy has one of the highest growth rates.
Politics
Ingrīda Ūdre, former Speaker of ''Saeima'', the Latvian parliament.
Main articles: Politics of Latvia
The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the ''Saeima'', is elected by direct, popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the ''Saeima'' in a separate election also every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the ''Saeima''. This system also existed before the Second World War.
In a nation-wide referendum on September 20, 2003, 66.9% of those taking part voted in favour of joining the European Union. Latvia became a full-fledged member of the European Union on May 1, 2004. Latvia has been a NATO member since March 29, 2004. Although membership in the EU and NATO were the major goals of Latvia through the 1990s, Latvian politicians today are often criticised for being unable to gain benefits out of Latvia's membership.
Latvia has had strained relations with Russian Federation due to Russian discontent with Latvian language and citizenship policies, as well as Latvia's requests for Russia to recognise it as continuous with the first Latvian Republic and acknowledge consequences of Soviet occupation.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Districts of Latvia, Subdivisions of Latvia
Latvia is divided into 26 districts (''rajoni''). There are also seven cities (''lielpilsētas'') that have a separate status. Latvia is also historically, culturally and constitutionally divided in four or more distinct regions.
★ Abrene District (1919 – 1940), the eastern part of which was annexed to Russia in 1944.
The legal status of the annexed portion is disputed — the western part of the former district is now in Balvi District.
Geography
Map of Latvia showing cities
Main articles: Geography of Latvia
Located on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, Latvia lies on the East European Plain. It consists of fertile, low-lying plains, largely covered by forest, mostly pines, the highest point being the Gaiziņkalns at 311.6 m (1,020 ft). Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, fox, beaver and wolves.[3] The Latvian climate is humid, continental and temperate in nature, with temperatures varying on average from -5 °C to +15°C, providing warm-water ports and water to more than 3,000 lakes and over 12,000 rivers, only seventeen of which are longer than 100 kilometers (sixty miles). The major rivers include the Daugava, the Lielupe, the Gauja, and the Salaca. An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country. Latvia's coastline extends for 531 kilometers. Its neighbors include Estonia to the north (267 kilometers of common border), Lithuania to the south (453 kilometers), Belarus to the southeast (141 kilometers), and Russia to the east (217 kilometers). Prior to World War II, Latvia bordered eastern Poland, but as a result of boundary changes by the Soviet Union, this part of Poland was attached to Belarus. Latvia de facto lost a part of the former Abrene District (2% of its territory) to Russia in the 1940s.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Latvia
Since the year 2000 Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.[4] In 2006, annual GDP growth was 11.9% and inflation was 6.2%. Unemployment was 8.5% — almost unchanged compared to the previous two years. However, it has recently dropped to 6.1%, partly due to active economic migration, mostly to the Republic of Ireland and United Kingdom. Some believe that Latvia's flat tax is responsible for its high growth rate, but this is not universally accepted. Privatisation has been mostly completed, except for some of the large state-owned utilities. Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004).
The fast growing economy is regarded as a possible economic bubble, because it is driven mostly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which increases at amount approximately 5% a month (due to lack of tax legislation that could prevent speculations in real estate market), are perceived to be too high for the economy, which mainly produces low valued goods and raw materials. As stated by Ober-Haus, a real estate company operating in Poland and the Baltics, the prices of some segments of real estate market have been stabilised as of summer 2006 and some experts expect serious reduction of real estate prices in the near future.
The government introduced special program to reduce inflation and remain high growth rates recently. The main points of the plan are:
★ To create a non-deficit country budget for the current 2007 year and a budget with a surplus for 2008 and beyond;
★ to tax any transaction concerning real estate that has been in a person's possession less than three years;
★ to increase control of credit;
★ to increase energy effectiveness in homes and business to guard against possible rises in energy costs, and
★ to increase work productivity and stimulate competition in business.
Latvia plans to introduce the Euro as the country's currency but, due to the inflation being above EMU's guidelines, this is unlikely to happen before 2010.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Latvia
| Latvians | 59.0% | Russians | 28.3% | Belarusians | 3.7% | Ukrainians | 2.5% | Poles | 2.4% | Lithuanians | 1.4% | Jews | 0.5% | Roma | 0.4% | Germans | 0.2% | Estonians | 0.1% | ''Others'' | 1.5% |
Nationalities
Latvia's population has been multiethnic for centuries, though the demographics shifted dramatically in the twentieth century due to the World Wars, the emigration and removal of Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet Union.
Latvians and Livonians, the indigenous peoples of Latvia, now form about 60% of the population; 28% of the inhabitants are Russian. The Breakdown of the Residents of Latvia as to Nationality Approximately 56% of the ethnic Russians living in Latvia are citizens of Latvia. People who arrived whilst Latvia was occupied by the USSR, and their descendants born before 1991, must be naturalised to receive Latvian citizenship. Over 100,000 persons have been naturalised in recent years.
In some large cities, e.g., Daugavpils and Rēzekne, Russians and other minorities outnumber Latvians. Minorities from other countries such as Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, etc., also live in Latvia. The share of ethnic Latvians had fallen from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.[5] In 2005 there were even fewer Latvians than in 1989, though their share of the population was larger — 1,357,099 (58.8% of the inhabitants).
Languages
The official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language group of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of Baltic-Finnic subbranch of Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian language — a dialect of Latvian — is also protected by Latvian law as historical variation of Latvian language. Russian is by far the most widespread minority language, also spoken, or at least understood, by large sections of the non-Russian population.
Religion
The majority of the population is Christian, although only 7% attend religious services regularly.[6] The largest groups in 2006 are:
★ Roman Catholic — 500,000,
★ Lutheran — 450,000
★ Eastern Orthodox — 350,000[7]
Lutheranism was much stronger before the Soviet occupation, when the majority was Lutheran, but since then Lutheranism in all the Baltic States has declined to a much greater extent than has Roman Catholicism. There are 182 known Muslims living in Latvia; total number of Muslims in Latvia, however, is estimated to be much larger — from 500 to 5,000. There are also Jews (9,743 in 2006) in Latvia.
There are more than 600 Latvian neopagans Dievturi (The Godskeepers) whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.[8] About 40% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion and may be nontheist.
Culture
Between the thirteenth and nineteenth century, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class. They developed a distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and Russian influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the USA, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life. Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions, for example in one of the most popular celebrations today which is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice, celebrated on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.
In the nineteenth century Latvian nationalist movements emerged promoting, Latvian culture and encouraging Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century is often regarded as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.
After incorporation into the USSR, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the Socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre and scenography have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.
International rankings
★ Environmental Sustainability Index: 15/146
★ Reporters Without Borders World-wide press freedom index: 10/168
★ Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index: 49/163
★ Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom: 39/157
See also
Bibliography
★ Latvia in Transition, , Juris, Dreifelds, Cambridge University Press, 1996,
★ Latvia: Country & People, Rutkis, Jānis (ed.), , , Latvian National Foundation, 1967,
★ The Story of Latvia: A Historical Survey, , Arveds, Švābe, Latvian National Foundation, 1949,
★ These Names Accuse: Nominal List of Latvians Deported to Soviet Russia, , , , Latvian National Foundation, 1982,
References
1. Data: 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE
2. The Crusaders
3. List of species
4. Growth rate of real GDP per capita
5. About Latvia
6. Trust in Religious Institutions does not convey to Church Attendance Eunice K. Y. Or
7. Na Łotwie działa ponad 1,2 tys. wspólnot religijnych
8. Statistics of approved parishes in Latvia
External links
'Government'
★ Cabinet of Ministers
★ Latvian Parliament — The website of Latvijas Republikas Saeima
★ Latvian President's Chancery
★ Ministry of Foreign Affairs
★ Central Election Commission of Latvia
★ National Agency of Latvian Language Training
★ National Statistics Agency — Statistical information on economical, demographic, social, and environmental phenomena and processes of Latvia
'Country profiles'
★ Latvia Country Study from the United States Library of Congress
★ Latvia from The World Factbook
★ Latvia Travel Profile from Lonely Planet
★ Latvia Country Profile from BBC News
★
'Other'
★ Latvija.lv — The official portal of Latvia by the Secretariat of Special Assignments Minister for Electronic Government Affairs
★ Latvia Tourism Brochures — Official publications by the European Travel Commission
★ The Latvian Institute — Publications on Latvian society, economy, culture and history
★ The Constitution of Latvia — Translated by the Latvia Law Institute, published online by the Human Rights Institute of the University of Latvia
★
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| ''Latvijas Republika'' Republic of Latvia | |
| Common name | Latvia |
| Conventional long name | Republic of Latvia |
 | |
 | |
| National motto | "Tēvzemei un Brīvībai"( Latvian) "For Fatherland and Freedom" |
| National anthem | ''Dievs, svētī Latviju!''(Latvian) "God, bless Latvia!" |
 | |
| Capital | Riga |
| Largest city | capital |
| Demonym | Latvian |
| Official languages | Latvian |
| Government type | Parliamentary democracy |
| Government | |
| President | Valdis Zatlers |
| Prime Minister | Aigars Kalvītis |
| Sovereignty type | Independence1 |
| Establishment | |
| Declared | November 18, 1918 |
| Recognized | January 26, 1921 |
| Proclaimed2 | May 4, 1990 |
| Area | |
| Area | 64,589 |
| Area rank | 124th |
| Area magnitude | 1 E10 |
| Percent water | 1.5 |
| Population | |
| Population estimate | 2,291,000 |
| Population estimate year | January 2006 |
| Population estimate rank | 143rd |
| Population census | 2 375 000 |
| Population census year | 2000 |
| Population density | 36 |
| Population density rank | 166th |
| GDP | |
| GDP PPP year | 2006 |
| GDP PPP | $29.214 billion |
| GDP PPP rank | 95th |
| GDP PPP per capita | $15,549 |
| GDP PPP per capita rank | 51st |
| HDI | |
| HDI year | 2004 |
| HDI | 0.845 |
| HDI rank | 45th |
| HDI category | high |
| Currency | |
| Currency | Lats (Ls) |
| Currency code | LVL |
| Time zone | EET |
| Utc offset | +2 |
| Time zone DST | EEST |
| Utc offset DST | +3 |
| Internet TLD | .lv 3 |
| Calling code | 371 |
