SAMKHYA

'Samkhya', also 'Sankhya', (Sanskrit: 'सांख्य', IAST: 'Sāṃkhya' - Enumeration) is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Sankhya school, although no historical verification is possible. It is regarded as the oldest of the philosophical systems in India.
This was later incorporated as being one of the six orthodox (''astika'') (that which recognizes vedic authority) systems of Hindu philosophy with the major text of the theistic school being the extant ''Sankhya Karika'', written by Ishvara Krishna, circa 200 CE. There are no purely Samkhya schools existing today in Hinduism, but its influence is felt in Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: Purusha and Prakriti.^[1]^[2] It is therefore a strongly dualist^[3] and enumerationist philosophy. The Purusha is the centre of consciousness, whereas the Prakriti is the source of all material existence.
The Samkhya school has deeply influenced the Hindu Yoga school of philosophy. They are sometimes referred together as Samkhya - yoga school.

Evolution of the Samkhya School

Samkhya doctrines go back to older Upanishads, and were compiled into a formal system only later.^[4] The history of the evolution of this school of thought begins with dualist teachings in the Upanishads.^[5] Anima Sen Gupta characterizes the references to samkhya ideas in the Upanishads as "scattered", gradually being developed into an orthodox system.^[6]
A division by time periods is noted by the commentator (14th c. CE) who mention two Samkhya schools: '' (original) and '' (late).^[7] Some Indologists use the terms "preclassical" and "classical" to distinguish between the early concepts and the codified system that eventually arose.^[8]
While many people believe that it was always an atheistic school of thought, in fact Samkhya passed through both theistic and atheistic stages of development as Gupta explains:

"In the classical Sāṃkhya both dualism and atheism are visible in clear and vivid forms. The complete passivity and disinterestedness of Puruṣa and the acceptance of triguṇātmikā Prakṛti, as the independent cause of all inner and outer manifestations of the world, are the important characteristics of the classical form. It is also realistic in its attitude towards the phenomenal world. The pre-classical Sāṃkhya on the other hand, has passed through different forms and stages such as theistic and monistic, atheistic and semidualistic, and so on."^[9]

There were several different schools of Samkhya, differing in their theistic emphasis and their conception of the soul.^[10]

Epistemology of Samkhya

According to the Samkhya school, knowledge is possible through three ''pramanas'' (means of knowledge) -

★ ''Pratyaksha'' - direct sense perception
Samkhya cites out two types of perceptions:
1. Indeterminate (nirvikalpa) perceptions and determinate (savikalpa) perceptions.
Indeterminate perceptions are merely impressions without understanding or knowledge. They reveal no knowledge of the form or the name of the object. There is only external awareness about an object. There is cognition of the object, but no discriminative recognition.
For example, a baby’s initial experience is full of impression. There is a lot of data from sensory perception, but there is little or no understanding of the inputs. Hence they can neither be differentiated nor be labeled. Most of them are indeterminate perceptions.
2. Determinate perceptions are the mature state of perceptions which have been processed and differentiated appropriately. Once the sensations have been processed, categorized and interpreted properly, they become determinate perceptions. They can lead to identification and also generate knowledge.

★ ''Anumana'' - logical inference

★ ''Sabda'' - verbal testimony

Metaphysics of Samkhya

Ontology

Broadly, the Samkhya system classifies all objects as falling into one of the two categories: Purusha and Prakriti. Metaphysically, Samkhya maintains a radical duality between spirit/consciousness (''Purusha'') and matter (''Prakrti'').

★ Purusha
Purusha is the Transcendental Self or Pure Consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable, above any experience and beyond any words or explanation. It remains pure, “nonattributive consciousness ”. Purusha is neither produced nor does it produce.

★ Prakriti
Prakriti is matter. Matter is inert, temporary, and unconscious.
It is composed of three qualities (gunas) corresponding to creation, sustenance, and destruction. They are:
:
★ sattva (goodness) – pure, elevating, enlightening
:
★ rajas (passion) – motivates us to create, acquire and enjoy
:
★ tamas (ignorance) – dirty, degrading, deluding, and destructive.
All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of ''Prakrti'', or primal Nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being is a ''Purusha'', and is limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. ''Samsaara'' or bondage arises when the ''Purusha'' does not have the discriminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the physical body - which is actually an evolute of ''Prakriti''. The spirit is liberated when the discriminate knowledge of the difference between conscious Purusha and unconscious Prakriti is realized.

★ Ishwara (''Creationist God'')
The original school of Samkhya as founded by Sage Kapila. There has no philosophical place for a creationst God in this system. The Samkhyan's argue that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist. The school also argues that an unchanging Ishvara as the cause cannot be the source of a changing world as the effect.
Later on followers of Samkhya adopted theism and included Ishvara within the system. The concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the Sankhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the theistic Yoga system of philosophy.

Nature of Duality

According to Samkhya, the efficient cause of the world is Purusha and the material cause is Prakriti. Here Purusha stands for the ‘Supreme Self’ and Prakriti stands for ‘Matter’. Purusha (Self) is the first principle of Samkhya. Prakriti is the second, the material principle of Samkhya.

Theory of Existence

The Samkhya system is based on Satkaryavada. According to Satkaryavada, the effect pre-exists in the cause. Cause and effect are seen as different temporal aspects of the same thing - the effect lies latent in the cause which in turn seeds the next effect.
More specifically, Samkhya system follows the 'Prakriti-Parinama Vada'. ''Parinama'' denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakriti or more precisely Mula-Prakriti (Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution, Prakriti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into Prakriti, which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other.
Sankhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because ''Prakriti'' is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands -

★ ''Sattva'' - a template of balance or equilibrium;

★ ''Rajas'' - a template of expansion or activity;

★ ''Tamas'' - a template of inertia or resistance to action.
All macrocosmic and microcosmic creation uses these templates. The twenty four principles that evolve are -

★ ''Prakriti'' - The most subtle potentiality that is behind whatever is created in the physical universe, also called "primordial Matter". It is also a state of equilibrium amongst the Three Gunas.

★ ''Mahat'' - first product of evolution from Prakriti, pure potentiality. ''Mahat'' is also considered to be the principle responsible for the rise of ''buddhi'' or intelligence in living beings.

★ ''Ahamkara'' or ego-sense - second product of evolution. It is responsible for the self-sense in living beings. It is also one's identification with the outer world and its content.

★ "Panch Tanmatras" are a simultaneous product from Mahat Tattva, along with the Ahamkara. They are the subtle form of Panch Mahabhutas which result from grossification or Panchikaran of the Tanmatras. Each of these Tanmatras are made of all three Gunas.

★ ''Manas'' or "Antahkaran" evolves from the total sum of the ''sattva'' aspect of ''Panch Tanmatras'' or the "Ahamkara"

★ ''Panch jnana indriyas'' or five sense organs - also evolves from the ''sattva'' aspect of ''Ahamkara''.

★ ''Panch karma indriya'' or five organs of action - The organs of action are hands, legs, vocal apparatus, urino-genital organ and anus. They evolve from the ''rajas'' aspect of ''Ahamkara''.

★ ''Panch mahabhuta'' or five great substances - ether, air, fire, water and earth. They evolve from the "tamas" aspect of the "Ahamkara". This is the revealed aspect of the physical universe.
The evolution of primal Nature is also considered to be purposeful - Prakrti evolves ''for'' the spirit in bondage. The spirit who is always free is only a witness to the evolution, even though due to the absence of discriminate knowledge, he misidentifies himself with it.
The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Sankhya is called ''Satkaarya-vaada'' (theory of existent causes), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness - all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.
The evolution of matter occurs when the relative strengths of the attributes change. The evolution ceases when the spirit realizes that it is distinct from primal Nature and thus cannot evolve. This destroys the purpose of evolution, thus stopping Prakrti from evolving for Purusha.
Samkhyan cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The evolution of forms at the basis of Samkhya is quite unique. The strands of Samkhyan thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.

Moksha

Like other major systems of Indian philosophy, Samkhya regards ignorance as the root cause of bondage and suffering (''Samsara''.) According to Samkhya, the Purusha is eternal, pure consciousness. Due to ignorance, it identifies itself with the physical body and its constituents - Manas, ahamkara and Mahat, which are products of Prakriti. Once it becomes free of this false identification and the material bonds, Moksha ensues.

Sankhya in the Srimad Bhagavatam

“In the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam, First Canto, it is described that one becomes joyful by discharging devotional service. In that joyful attitude, one can understand the science of God, or Krishna consciousness; otherwise it is not possible. The analytical study of the elements of material nature and the concentration of the mind upon the supersoul are the sum and substance of the Sankhya philosophical system. The perfection of this sankhya-yoga culminates in devotional service unto the absolute truth.”
Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 3.26.72 purport
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the world’s most distinguished teacher of Indian religious and philosophical thought, has given extensive commentary on the authoritative definition of sankhya philosophy in his English translation of the Srimad Bhagavatam or Bhagavat Purana, which is considered the “ripened fruit of the tree of Vedic knowledge”.
The path of sankhya yoga has nothing to do with mental speculation and is not the creation of any conditioned living entity of this material world. Explanations of sankhya philosophy devoid of the devotional service of the Supreme Lord or which refuse to acknowledge that Kapiladeva belongs to an entirely different class of entity (Vishnu tattva) cannot liberate anyone from material bondage. Such commentaries diverge fundamentally from the Vedic conclusion ''ishvara parama krishna sac cid ananda vigraha''; a conclusion which clearly states that the highest truth is Lord Krishna, who is the cause of all causes and possesses an eternal body of perfect cognizance and bliss.
The real sankhya philosophy is originally explained by Sri Kapiladeva, who is Lord Sri Krishna appearing Himself to distribute transcendental knowledge for the enlightenment of the conditioned souls. Lord Kapiladeva appeared as the son of Devahuti and Kadarma Muni, who were both elevated devotees. The mother of Kapiladeva, Devahuti, taking the role of a fallen soul, had expressed to her exalted son “My dear Kapila, I am very sick of the disturbance of my material senses, for because of this sense disturbance, my Lord, I have fallen into the abyss of ignorance. You have come as my son, but you are my guru because you can inform me how I can cross the ocean of nescience, which is the material world. Your Lordship is my only means of getting out of this darkest region of ignorance because You are my transcendental eye, which, by Your mercy only, I have attained after many many births. You are the Supreme Personality of Godhead, the origin and Supreme Lord of all living entities. You have arisen to disseminate the rays of the sun in order to dissapate the darkness of ignorance of the universe”.
After hearing his mother’s uncontaminated desire for transcendental realization, the Lord thanked her within Himself for her questions, and thus, His face smiling, He explained the path of sankhya-yoga for the transcendentalists, who are interested in self realization..” Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 3.25.8-14)
Lord Kapiladeva goes on to explain that “The yoga system which relates to the Lord and the individual soul, which is meant for the ultimate benefit of the living entity, and which causes detachment from all happiness and distress in the material world, is the highest yoga system.” (Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 3.25.13)

★ On the highest platform of yoga one who becomes transcendentally situated by elevation to devotional service to the Lord is joyfully aloof from the temporary and ephemeral states of mundane happiness and distress. That state is described by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is(18.54) ''brahma-bhutah prasannatma na socati na kanksati samah sarvesu bhutesu mad-bhaktim labhate param'' "One who is thus transcendentally situated at once realizes the Supreme Brahman. He never laments nor desires to have anything; he is equally disposed to every living entity. In that state he attains pure devotional service unto Me."
When the consciousness of the living entity is conditioned by the three modes of material nature, sattvas, rajas and tamas, the living entity is considered to be entangled in guneshu, or maya consciousness. When the same consciousness is attached to the Supreme Lord, one is considered to be in liberated consciousness. Material consciousness conditioned by the modes of nature has as its cental focus fruitive action by the living entity for the enjoyment of material sense gratification. Pure Krishna consciousness is the innate quality of the living entity and is characterised by the absence of fruitive desire for sense enjoyment, which is replaced by the desire to please the senses of the Supreme Lord.
The entire yogic process, culminating in bhakti yoga, is to cleanse the mind and senses of the effects of kama and lobha – lust and greed. As soon as the living entity is purified of the false ego of identifying with the material body he transcends the influence of mundane happiness and distress. The living entity is described in the Bhagavad Gita (15.7) as mamaivamso jiva loke jiva bhuta sanatana, the “eternal, fragmental part of the Supreme.” Contrary to the monist school of thought, the living entity and Supreme Lord are eternally separate individuals. “The mayavada philosophy enunciates that the whole spirit exists, but a part of it, which is called the jiva, is entrapped by illusion. This philosophy is unnacceptable because spirit cannot be divided like a particle of matter. The part, the jiva, is eternally a part. As long as the Supreme Lord exists, His part and parcel also exists.” (Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 3.25.17)

★ Yogis and transcendentalists may follow numerous paths to attain jnana and vairagya (knowledge and renunciation), however, they cannot be successful without surrender and devotion to the Supreme Lord. (Srimad Bhagavatam 3.25.19)
Commentators who describe Kapiladeva as merely a sage or an unusually qualified person are disingenuous. Kapiladeva is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Elsewhere on Wikipedia are unbonafide comments such as
“The original school of Samkhya as founded by Sage Kapila. There is no philosophical place for a creationst God in this system. The Samkhyan's argue that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist. The school also argues that an unchanging Ishvara as the cause cannot be the source of a changing world as the effect.” Such statements are not supported in the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam or the Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is, both scriptures being considered the absolute essence of all Vedic wisdom.
It would be absurd for the Supreme Lord to propound a philosophical system which is diametrically opposed to the absolute nature of His existence as the creator and maintainer of the entire creation. Arguments otherwise misconstrue the Vedic conclusion and are entirely contrary to the authoritative Vedic scriptures such as the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam, which literally means, the beautiful story of the Supreme Lord. Complex word jugglery by mental speculators advertising themselves as great authorities on the sankhya philosophy are useless. Descriptions of purusha which do not refer to the Supreme Purusha, Lord Krishna, are also useless. Descriptions of prakrti which do not refer to the fact that prakrti is the external energy of the Lord are also useless. The Bhagavad Gita (7.4) clearly states that the material nature is the external, separated energy of the Lord, and that the living entities are part of His superior spiritual energy Bhagavad Gita (7.5) and that in both cases He is the original source.

Notes

1. For the basis of Samkhya as dualist Purusha and Prakriti, see: Michaels, p. 264.
2. For the the separation between Purusha and Prakriti as the "cardinal doctrine" of Samkhya philosophy, see: Sen Gupta, p. 6.
3. For Samkhya as a dualist school, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 89.
4. For roots in Upanishads with later compilation into a system, see: Michaels, p. 264.
5. For beginning of the history as Upanishadic dualism, see: Sen Gupta, p. 9.
6. For the quotation "scattered" and gradual development into a system, see: Sen Gupta, p. 1.
7. For dating of and the two schools, see: Eliade, p. 368.
8. For examples of the use of the terms, see: Eliade, p. 368.
9. See: Sen Gupta, p. viii.
10. For multiplicity of schools, see: Eliade, p. 368.

References

★ Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, , Mircea, Eliade, Bollingen Foundation, Inc., 1969, Second Edition. Translated from the French by Willard R. Trask.

★ Hinduism: Past and Present, , Axel, Michaels, Princeton University Press, 2004,

★ A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, , S., Radhakrishnan, Princeton University Press, 1957, Princeton paperback 12th printing, 1989.

★ Sen Gupta, Anima. ''The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought''. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, 1986.

★ A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, ''Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (1972-77)'' (multiple volumes)

External links

★ Sankhya philosophy (archive)

★ Comparison between Indian and Greek cosmology

★ Maharshi Vyasa and Sankhya Shastra

★ PDF file of Ishwarkrishna's sankhyakarikaa - 200BC (in Sanskrit) available for research purposes only

★ Sankhya shastra and the Anatomy of Human Sorrow

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SAMKHYA

Evolution of the Samkhya School

Epistemology of Samkhya

Metaphysics of Samkhya

Ontology

Nature of Duality

Theory of Existence

Moksha

Sankhya in the Srimad Bhagavatam

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

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