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'Literature in Sanskrit' begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to the Early Middle Ages (roughly the 3rd to 7th centuries AD). Literary production saw a late bloom in the 11th century before declining after 1100 AD. There are contemporary efforts towards revival, with events like the "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holding composition contests.
Given its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in Hinduism, and the fact that most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit, the language and its literature is of great importance in Indian culture, not unlike that of Latin in European culture.
Main articles: Vedas
Composed between approximately 1500 BC and 600 BC (the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) in pre-classical Sanskrit , Vedic literature forms the basis for the further development of Hinduism. There are four Vedas - ''Rig, Yajus, Sāma and Atharva'', each with a main Samhita and a number of circum-vedic genres, including Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Grhyasutras and Shrautasutras. The main period of Vedic literary activity falls into ca. the 9th to 7th centuries when the various shakhas (schools) compiled and memorized their respective corpora.
The older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB, KathU, MaitrU) belong to the Vedic period, but the larger part of the Muktika canon is post-Vedic. The Aranyakas form part of both the Brahmana and Upanishad corpus.
Main articles: Sutra
Continuing the tradition of the late Vedic Shrautasutra literature, Late Iron Age scholarship (ca. 500 to 100 BCE) organized knowledge into Sutra treatises, including the Vedanga and the religious or philosophical Brahma Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Nyaya Sutras.
In the Vedanga disciplines of grammar and phonetics, no author had greater influence than with his (ca. 5th century BC). In the tradition of Sutra literature exposing the full grammar of Sanskrit in extreme brevity, Panini's brilliance lies in the nature of his work of a prescriptive generative grammar, involving metarules, transformations and recursion. Being prescriptive for all later grammatical works, such as Patanjali's , 's grammar effectively fixed the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. The Backus-Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages have significant similarities with Panini's grammar rules.
See also: Shulba Sutras, Kalpa Sutras, Dharma Sutras; Shastras are commentaries on Sutras.
Main articles: Indian epic poetry
The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two great epics, the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayana'', with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. They are known as itihasa, or "''that which occurred''".
Main articles: Mahabharata
The ''Mahabharata'' (''Great Bharata'') is one of the largest poetic works in the world. While it is clearly a poetic epic, it contains large tracts of Hindu mythology, philosophy and religious tracts. At 100,000 stanzas, it is 8 times as big as the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' put together. Traditionally, authorship of the ''Mahabharata'' is attributed to the sage Vyasa. However, Vyasa's historicity cannot be verified by independent sources. Also, it is clear that the ''Mahabharata'' was not written by any single person at any single time. Indeed, the first stanza of the ''Mahabharata'' mentions that the name of the book is ''Jaya'' ("''victory''"), even though the book is now called ''Mahabharata''. According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (81, 101-102), the text was originally 8,800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the ''Jaya'' (Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the ''Bharata'' recited by Vaisampayana. The addition of verses and the subplots is attributed to Vaishampayana explaining the people and places mentioned in the initial prose. The ''Bharata'' text was subsequently expanded, quadrupling in size over the time of four centuries or so. Bhagavad Gita, the seminal work of the Hindu religion, which appears in the tenth Parva (book) of the ''Mahabharata'', was added at this stage.
The broad sweep of the story of the ''Mahabharata'' chronicles the story of the conflict between two families for control of Hastinapur, a city in Ancient India. It also contains numerous sub-plots, which are independent stories in their own right.
The impact of the ''Mahabharata'' on India and Hinduism cannot be stressed enough. Having been molded by Indian culture, it has in turn molded the further development of Indian culture. Thousands of later writers would draw freely from the story and sub-stories of the ''Mahabharata''. The epic has inspired numerous later works, leaving a huge imprint on Indian literature, religion, folklore and philosophy.
Main articles: Ramayana
While not as big as the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Ramayana'' is still twice as big as the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' put together. Traditionally, the authorship is attribued to the Hindu sage Valmiki, who is referred to as 'Adikavi', or "first poet." Valmiki in Ramayana introduced the Anushtubh meter for the first time. The meter has become the most popular meter in sanskrit poetry.
Akin to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is also handed down orally and evolved through several centuries before being put into writing. The first and last chapters (Balakanda and Uttarakanda) of the epic are added at a later stage. Like its larger but younger counterpart, it has become a seminal text of the Hindu faith. It includes tales that form the basis for modern Hindu festivals and even contains a description of the same marriage practice still observed in contemporary times by people of Hindu persuasion.
The story deals with Prince Rama (Indian vernaculars: Raam or Sri Ram), his exile and the abduction of his wife by the Rakshas king Ravana, and the Lankan war. Similar to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also has several full-fledged stories appearing as sub-plots.
The Ramayana has also played a similar and equally important role in the further development of Indian culture as the Mahabharata.
The ''Ramayana'' is also extant in Ramayana: Southeast Asian versions
Main articles: Sanskrit drama
'Drama' as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, influenced partly by Vedic mythology and partly by Hellenistic drama. It reaches its peak between the 4th and 7th centuries before declining together with Sanskrit literature as a whole.
Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Sudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa and Kalidasa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves.
One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is the Mricchakatika, thought to have been composed by Shudraka in the 2nd century BC. The ''Natya Shastra'' (ca. 2nd century AD, literally "Scripture of Dance," though it sometimes translated as "Science of Theatre'") is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft. Bhasa and Kalidasa are major early authors of the first centuries AD, Kalidasa qualifying easily as the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes; three famous plays by Kalidasa are 'Vikramōrvaśīyam' (Vikrama and Urvashi), 'Mālavikāgnimitram' (Malavika and Agnimitra), and the play that he is most known for: 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' (The Recognition of Shakuntala).
Late (post 6th century) dramatists include Dandi and Sri Harsha. The only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is Koodiyattam. Which is being preserved in Kerala by the Chakyar community.
Main articles: Tantras
"Tantra" is a general term for a scientific, magical or mystical treatise, including works on Hindu astrology (Parashara) and mystical texts both Hindu and Buddhist said to concern themselves with five subjects, 1. the creation, 2. the destruction of the world, 3. the worship of the gods, 4. the attainment of all objects, 5. the four modes of union with the supreme spirit by meditation. These texts date to the entire lifespan of Classical Sanskrit literature.
The Panchatantra is a collection of fables estimated to have reached its fixed form around 200 BCE.
This refers to the poetry produced from the approximately the 3rd to 8th centuries. Kalidasa is the foremost example of a classical poet.
Great poets are great poets everywhere because their language is beautiful without being recherché, whatever language they work with. In this sense, Kalidasa is not second to, say, Shakespeare or Kavafis.
But a striking characteristic of Indian literary tradition is that sometimes poets show off their technical dexterity with highly Oulipian word-games, like stanzas that read the same backwards and forwards, words that can be split in different ways to produce different meanings, sophisticated metaphors, and so on. This style is referred to as kavya. A classic example is the poet Bharavi and his magnum opus, the Kiratarjuniya (6th-7th century).
The greatest works of poetry in this period are the six ''Mahakavya''s, or "great composition":
★ ''Kumarasambhavam'' by Kalidasa
★ ''Raghuvamsham'' by Kalidasa
★ ''Meghaduta'' by Kalidasa
★ ''Kiratarjuniya'' by Bharavi
★ ''Shishupala Vadha'' by Sri Maagha
★ ''Naishadiya Charitam'' by Sri Harsha
Some would include the Bhattikavya as a seventh Mahakavya.
Other major literary works from this period are ''Kadambari'' by Bana Bhatta, the first Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries), the Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana, and the shatakas of .
Main articles: Puranas
The corpus of the Hindu Puranas likewise falls into the classical period of Sanskrit literature, dating to between the 5th and 10th centuries, and marks the emergence of the Vaishna and Shaiva denominations of classical Hinduism.
The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus.
Traditionally[1] they are said to narrate five subjects, called '' ("five distinguishing marks"), which are:
# Sarga - The creation of the universe.
# Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
# Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.
# Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
# Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.
A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient.
Some important works from the 11th century include the ''Katha-sarit-sagara'' and the ''Geeta Govinda''.
The ''Katha-sarita-sagara'' (An Ocean of Stories) by Somadeva was an 11th century poetic adaptation in Sanskrit of ''Brihat-katha'', written in the 5th century BC in the ''Paishachi'' dialect. One of the famous series of stories in this work is the ''Vikrama and Vetaala'' series, known to every child in India.
The ''Gita Govinda'' (The song of Govinda) by the Orissan composer Jayadeva is the story of Krishna's love for Radha, and is written in spectacularly lyrical and musical Sanskrit. A central text for several Hindu sects in eastern India, the ''Gita Govinda'' is recited regularly at major Hindu pilgrimage sites such as Jagannath temple at Puri, Orissa. The ''Ashtapadis'' of the ''Gita Govinda'' also form a staple theme in Bharatanatyam and Odissi classical dance recitals.
Beyond the 11th century, the use of Sanskrit for general literature declined, most importantly because of the emergence of literature in vernacular Indian languages (notably Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu). Sanskrit continued to be used, largely for Hindu religious and philosophical literature. Sanskrit literature fueled literature in vernacular languages, and the Sanskrit language itself continued to have a profound influence over the development of Indian literature in general.
★ Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swan and Phillip B. Zarelli (1990). ''Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance'' (3rd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1190-9.
★ ''Nātyakalpadrumam'' (Theatrical Study) by Mani Madhava Chakyar,1975
★ Sanskrit drama
★ Hindu scripture
★ Indian literature
★ Early Medieval literature
★ List of Sanskrit poets
★ Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1927 (1907)
★ Sengupta, P.C. "Ancient Indian Chronology". Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press. 1947.
;etexts
★ GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
★ TITUS Indica
★ Sanskrit Literature
★ Vedabase.net vaishnava literatures with word for word translations from Sanskrit to English.
★ Official page of the Clay Sanskrit Library, publisher of classical Indian literature with facing-page texts and translations. Also offers numerous downloadable materials.
[fr:Théâtre indien]
Given its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in Hinduism, and the fact that most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit, the language and its literature is of great importance in Indian culture, not unlike that of Latin in European culture.
| Contents |
| The Vedic Period |
| Sutra literature |
| The Epics |
| The ''Mahabharata'' |
| The ''Ramayana'' |
| Drama |
| Tantras |
| Classical Poetry |
| Puranas |
| Later Sanskrit literature |
| References |
| See also |
| Further reading |
| External links |
The Vedic Period
Main articles: Vedas
Composed between approximately 1500 BC and 600 BC (the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) in pre-classical Sanskrit , Vedic literature forms the basis for the further development of Hinduism. There are four Vedas - ''Rig, Yajus, Sāma and Atharva'', each with a main Samhita and a number of circum-vedic genres, including Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Grhyasutras and Shrautasutras. The main period of Vedic literary activity falls into ca. the 9th to 7th centuries when the various shakhas (schools) compiled and memorized their respective corpora.
The older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB, KathU, MaitrU) belong to the Vedic period, but the larger part of the Muktika canon is post-Vedic. The Aranyakas form part of both the Brahmana and Upanishad corpus.
Sutra literature
Main articles: Sutra
Continuing the tradition of the late Vedic Shrautasutra literature, Late Iron Age scholarship (ca. 500 to 100 BCE) organized knowledge into Sutra treatises, including the Vedanga and the religious or philosophical Brahma Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Nyaya Sutras.
In the Vedanga disciplines of grammar and phonetics, no author had greater influence than with his (ca. 5th century BC). In the tradition of Sutra literature exposing the full grammar of Sanskrit in extreme brevity, Panini's brilliance lies in the nature of his work of a prescriptive generative grammar, involving metarules, transformations and recursion. Being prescriptive for all later grammatical works, such as Patanjali's , 's grammar effectively fixed the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. The Backus-Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages have significant similarities with Panini's grammar rules.
See also: Shulba Sutras, Kalpa Sutras, Dharma Sutras; Shastras are commentaries on Sutras.
The Epics
Main articles: Indian epic poetry
The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two great epics, the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayana'', with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. They are known as itihasa, or "''that which occurred''".
The ''Mahabharata''
Main articles: Mahabharata
The ''Mahabharata'' (''Great Bharata'') is one of the largest poetic works in the world. While it is clearly a poetic epic, it contains large tracts of Hindu mythology, philosophy and religious tracts. At 100,000 stanzas, it is 8 times as big as the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' put together. Traditionally, authorship of the ''Mahabharata'' is attributed to the sage Vyasa. However, Vyasa's historicity cannot be verified by independent sources. Also, it is clear that the ''Mahabharata'' was not written by any single person at any single time. Indeed, the first stanza of the ''Mahabharata'' mentions that the name of the book is ''Jaya'' ("''victory''"), even though the book is now called ''Mahabharata''. According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (81, 101-102), the text was originally 8,800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the ''Jaya'' (Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the ''Bharata'' recited by Vaisampayana. The addition of verses and the subplots is attributed to Vaishampayana explaining the people and places mentioned in the initial prose. The ''Bharata'' text was subsequently expanded, quadrupling in size over the time of four centuries or so. Bhagavad Gita, the seminal work of the Hindu religion, which appears in the tenth Parva (book) of the ''Mahabharata'', was added at this stage.
The broad sweep of the story of the ''Mahabharata'' chronicles the story of the conflict between two families for control of Hastinapur, a city in Ancient India. It also contains numerous sub-plots, which are independent stories in their own right.
The impact of the ''Mahabharata'' on India and Hinduism cannot be stressed enough. Having been molded by Indian culture, it has in turn molded the further development of Indian culture. Thousands of later writers would draw freely from the story and sub-stories of the ''Mahabharata''. The epic has inspired numerous later works, leaving a huge imprint on Indian literature, religion, folklore and philosophy.
The ''Ramayana''
Main articles: Ramayana
While not as big as the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Ramayana'' is still twice as big as the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' put together. Traditionally, the authorship is attribued to the Hindu sage Valmiki, who is referred to as 'Adikavi', or "first poet." Valmiki in Ramayana introduced the Anushtubh meter for the first time. The meter has become the most popular meter in sanskrit poetry.
Akin to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is also handed down orally and evolved through several centuries before being put into writing. The first and last chapters (Balakanda and Uttarakanda) of the epic are added at a later stage. Like its larger but younger counterpart, it has become a seminal text of the Hindu faith. It includes tales that form the basis for modern Hindu festivals and even contains a description of the same marriage practice still observed in contemporary times by people of Hindu persuasion.
The story deals with Prince Rama (Indian vernaculars: Raam or Sri Ram), his exile and the abduction of his wife by the Rakshas king Ravana, and the Lankan war. Similar to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also has several full-fledged stories appearing as sub-plots.
The Ramayana has also played a similar and equally important role in the further development of Indian culture as the Mahabharata.
The ''Ramayana'' is also extant in Ramayana: Southeast Asian versions
Drama
Main articles: Sanskrit drama
'Drama' as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, influenced partly by Vedic mythology and partly by Hellenistic drama. It reaches its peak between the 4th and 7th centuries before declining together with Sanskrit literature as a whole.
Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Sudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa and Kalidasa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves.
One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is the Mricchakatika, thought to have been composed by Shudraka in the 2nd century BC. The ''Natya Shastra'' (ca. 2nd century AD, literally "Scripture of Dance," though it sometimes translated as "Science of Theatre'") is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft. Bhasa and Kalidasa are major early authors of the first centuries AD, Kalidasa qualifying easily as the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes; three famous plays by Kalidasa are 'Vikramōrvaśīyam' (Vikrama and Urvashi), 'Mālavikāgnimitram' (Malavika and Agnimitra), and the play that he is most known for: 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' (The Recognition of Shakuntala).
Late (post 6th century) dramatists include Dandi and Sri Harsha. The only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is Koodiyattam. Which is being preserved in Kerala by the Chakyar community.
Tantras
Main articles: Tantras
"Tantra" is a general term for a scientific, magical or mystical treatise, including works on Hindu astrology (Parashara) and mystical texts both Hindu and Buddhist said to concern themselves with five subjects, 1. the creation, 2. the destruction of the world, 3. the worship of the gods, 4. the attainment of all objects, 5. the four modes of union with the supreme spirit by meditation. These texts date to the entire lifespan of Classical Sanskrit literature.
The Panchatantra is a collection of fables estimated to have reached its fixed form around 200 BCE.
Classical Poetry
This refers to the poetry produced from the approximately the 3rd to 8th centuries. Kalidasa is the foremost example of a classical poet.
Great poets are great poets everywhere because their language is beautiful without being recherché, whatever language they work with. In this sense, Kalidasa is not second to, say, Shakespeare or Kavafis.
But a striking characteristic of Indian literary tradition is that sometimes poets show off their technical dexterity with highly Oulipian word-games, like stanzas that read the same backwards and forwards, words that can be split in different ways to produce different meanings, sophisticated metaphors, and so on. This style is referred to as kavya. A classic example is the poet Bharavi and his magnum opus, the Kiratarjuniya (6th-7th century).
The greatest works of poetry in this period are the six ''Mahakavya''s, or "great composition":
★ ''Kumarasambhavam'' by Kalidasa
★ ''Raghuvamsham'' by Kalidasa
★ ''Meghaduta'' by Kalidasa
★ ''Kiratarjuniya'' by Bharavi
★ ''Shishupala Vadha'' by Sri Maagha
★ ''Naishadiya Charitam'' by Sri Harsha
Some would include the Bhattikavya as a seventh Mahakavya.
Other major literary works from this period are ''Kadambari'' by Bana Bhatta, the first Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries), the Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana, and the shatakas of .
Puranas
Main articles: Puranas
The corpus of the Hindu Puranas likewise falls into the classical period of Sanskrit literature, dating to between the 5th and 10th centuries, and marks the emergence of the Vaishna and Shaiva denominations of classical Hinduism.
The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus.
Traditionally[1] they are said to narrate five subjects, called '' ("five distinguishing marks"), which are:
# Sarga - The creation of the universe.
# Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
# Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.
# Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
# Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.
A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient.
Later Sanskrit literature
Some important works from the 11th century include the ''Katha-sarit-sagara'' and the ''Geeta Govinda''.
The ''Katha-sarita-sagara'' (An Ocean of Stories) by Somadeva was an 11th century poetic adaptation in Sanskrit of ''Brihat-katha'', written in the 5th century BC in the ''Paishachi'' dialect. One of the famous series of stories in this work is the ''Vikrama and Vetaala'' series, known to every child in India.
The ''Gita Govinda'' (The song of Govinda) by the Orissan composer Jayadeva is the story of Krishna's love for Radha, and is written in spectacularly lyrical and musical Sanskrit. A central text for several Hindu sects in eastern India, the ''Gita Govinda'' is recited regularly at major Hindu pilgrimage sites such as Jagannath temple at Puri, Orissa. The ''Ashtapadis'' of the ''Gita Govinda'' also form a staple theme in Bharatanatyam and Odissi classical dance recitals.
Beyond the 11th century, the use of Sanskrit for general literature declined, most importantly because of the emergence of literature in vernacular Indian languages (notably Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu). Sanskrit continued to be used, largely for Hindu religious and philosophical literature. Sanskrit literature fueled literature in vernacular languages, and the Sanskrit language itself continued to have a profound influence over the development of Indian literature in general.
References
★ Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swan and Phillip B. Zarelli (1990). ''Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance'' (3rd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1190-9.
★ ''Nātyakalpadrumam'' (Theatrical Study) by Mani Madhava Chakyar,1975
See also
★ Sanskrit drama
★ Hindu scripture
★ Indian literature
★ Early Medieval literature
★ List of Sanskrit poets
Further reading
★ Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1927 (1907)
★ Sengupta, P.C. "Ancient Indian Chronology". Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press. 1947.
External links
;etexts
★ GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
★ TITUS Indica
★ Sanskrit Literature
★ Vedabase.net vaishnava literatures with word for word translations from Sanskrit to English.
★ Official page of the Clay Sanskrit Library, publisher of classical Indian literature with facing-page texts and translations. Also offers numerous downloadable materials.
[fr:Théâtre indien]
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