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'Skinheads', named for their close-cropped or shaven heads, are a working-class subculture that originated in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s, and then spread to other parts of the world. The first skinheads were greatly influenced by West Indian rude boys and British mods, in terms of fashion, music and lifestyle.[1] Originally, the skinhead subculture was primarily based on those elements, not politics or race. Since then, however, attitudes toward race and politics have become factors in where a skinhead aligns his or herself. The political spectrum within the skinhead scene ranges from the far right to the far left, although many skinheads remain apolitical. Fashion-wise, skinheads range from a clean-cut 1960s mod-influenced style to less-strict punk- and hardcore-influenced styles.
In the late 1950s, the United Kingdom's entrenched class system limited most working class people's educational, housing, and economic opportunities. However, Britain's post-war economic boom led to an increase in disposable income among many young people. Some of those youths spent that income on new fashions popularised by American soul groups, British R&B bands, certain movie actors, and Carnaby Street clothing merchants.[2][3]
These youths became known as the mods, a youth subculture noted for its consumerism — and devotion to fashion, music and scooters.[4] Mods of lesser means made do with practical styles that suited their lifestyle and employment circumstances: steel-toe boots, straight-leg jeans or Sta-Prest trousers, button-up shirts, and braces (called suspenders in the USA). When possible, these working-class mods spent their money on suits and other sharp outfits to wear at dancehalls, where they enjoyed soul, ska, bluebeat and rocksteady music.[1][6]
Around 1965, a schism developed between the ''peacock mods'', who were less violent and always wore the latest expensive clothes, and the ''hard mods'' (also known as ''gang mods''), who were identified by their shorter hair and more working-class image.[7] Also known as ''lemonheads'' and ''peanuts'', these hard mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968.[8] Their shorter hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair can be a liability in industrial jobs and a disadvantage in streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the more bourgeois hippie culture popular at the time.[9]
In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in Jamaican rude boy styles and culture, especially the music: ska, rocksteady, and early reggae (before the tempo slowed down and lyrics became focused on topics like black nationalism and Rastafarianism).[10][11][1] Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look, as a marketing strategy.[13][14][15] The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by Richard Allen, notably ''Skinhead'' and ''Skinhead Escapes''.[16]
[17] Due to largescale British migration to Perth, Western Australia, many British youths in Perth joined skinhead/sharpies gangs in Medina, Rockingham, Armadale, Kelmscott, Lynwood and Thornlie in the 1960s; forming their own Australian style.
By the 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the ''suedeheads'' (defined by the ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb), ''smoothies'' (often with shoulder-length hairstyles), and ''bootboys'' (with mod-length hair; associated with gangs and hooliganism).[9]
[19]
[20] Some fashion trends returned to mod roots, reintroducing brogues, loafers, suits, and the slacks-and-sweater look.
In 1977, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of punk rock. Most of these revival skinheads were a reaction to the commercialism of punk and adopted a sharp, smart look in line with the original look of the 1969 skinheads and included Gary Hodges and Hoxton Tom McCourt (both later of the band the 4-Skins) and Suggs, later of the band Madness. From 1979 onwards, skinheads with even shorter hair and less emphasis on traditional styles grew in numbers and grabbed media attention, mostly as a result of their involvement with football hooliganism. These skinheads wore punk-influenced styles like higher boots than before (14-20 eyelets) and tighter jeans (sometimes splattered with bleach). However, there were still several skinheads who preferred the original mod-inspired styles. Eventually different interpretations of the skinhead subculture expanded beyond The UK and Europe. One major example is that in the United States, certain segments of the hardcore punk scene embraced skinhead style and developed its own version of the subculture.
In the late 1960s, some skinheads (including black skinheads) had engaged in violence against random Pakistanis and other South Asian immigrants (an act known as ''Paki bashing'' in common slang).[21][22][9] Although these early skinheads were not part of an organized racist movement, by the early 1970s there were skinheads who aligned themselves with the white nationalist National Front. However, there had also been anti-racist and leftist skinheads from the beginning, especially in areas such as Scotland and northern England.[24] [25] As the 1970s progressed, the racially-motivated skinhead violence in the UK became more partisan, and groups such as the National Front and the British Movement, saw a rise in skinheads among their ranks. Although many skinheads rejected political labels being applied to their subculture, some working class skinheads blamed non-white immigrants for economic and social problems, and agreed with far right organizations' positions against blacks and Asians.
By the late 1970s, some openly neo-Nazi groups were largely composed of skinheads, and by this point, the the mass media, and subsequently the general public, had largely come to view skinheads exclusively as a subculture promoting white power. However, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, many skinheads, suedeheads, ex-skinheads and football casuals in the UK rejected the dogma of both the left and right. This anti-extremist attitude was musically typified by Oi! bands such as Cockney Rejects, The 4-Skins and The Business.
Some skinheads countered the neo-Nazi stereotype by forming anti-racist organizations, such as Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP) which was founded in New York City in 1987 and spread to several other countries, and Anti-Racist Action (ARA), which started in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1988.[26][27][28][29] Other less-political skinheads also spoke out against neo-Nazis and in support of traditional skinhead culture; two examples of this were the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland (who coined the phrase ''Spirit of 69''), and the publishers of the ''Hard As Nails'' zine in England.[24]
There are several different political categories of skinheads. However, many skinheads don't fit into any of these categories. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant forces of skinhead political groupings. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.
Anti-racist skinheads, sometimes known as SHARPs, are aggressively opposed to neo-Nazism and racism, although not always political in terms of other issues.[28][27]The label ''SHARP'' is sometimes used to describe all anti-racist skinheads, even if they aren't members of a SHARP organisation. Some anti-racist skinheads have been involved with political groups such as Anti-Fascist Action or Anti-Racist Action. White power and traditional skinheads (especially in the U.S.) sometimes refer to them as ''baldies''.
Apolitical skinheads either oppose all politics in general, are politically moderate, or keep their personal political views out of the skinhead subculture. Skinheads on either extreme of the political spectrum sometimes refer to this type as a ''fencesitter'' or ''fencewalker''.
Left wing skinheads are anti-racist and anti-fascist, taking a militant pro-working class stance. This category includes redskins and anarchist skinheads.[33] The most well-known organization in this category is Red and Anarchist Skinheads.[34]
Right wing skinheads are conservative and patriotic, but not necessarily extreme or fascist. This type of skinhead seems to be common in the United States.[35]
White power skinheads or neo-Nazi skinheads are racist, extremely nationalist and highly political.[1][37] Many Nazi skinheads have no connection to the original 1960s skinhead culture in terms of style or interests. SHARPs and traditional skinheads often refer to them as ''boneheads''.
In addition to short hair, skinheads are identified by their specific clothing styles. Skinhead fashions have evolved somewhat since the formation of the subculture in the 1960s, and certain clothing styles have been more prevalent in specific geographic locations and time periods. The following list includes many of the clothing articles that have been worn by skinheads.[38][39][40]
'Hair:'
★ 'Men': Originally, between a 2 and 3 grade clip-guard (short, but not bald); beginning in the late 1970s, typically shaved closer, with no greater than a number 2 guard. Now some skinheads clip their hair with no guard, and some even shave it with a razor. This started with the introduction of the Oi! scene. Some skinheads sport sideburns of various styles, usually neatly trimmed.
★ 'Women': In the 1960s, many female skinheads had ''normal'' or mod-influenced hairstyles. During the revival, many started wearing a Chelsea hairstyle, which, in some cases, is a shorter punk-influenced version of the feathercut. A feathercut is short on top (the crown), with fringes at the front, back and sides. Some Chelsea cuts are shaved almost entirely at the back, only leaving fringes in the front, and bangs. Feathercuts tend to have longer fringes.
'Tops:'
★ 'Men': fitted Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Brutus, Jaytex, Arnold Palmer and other brands of button-up or polo shirts; Lonsdale shirts or sweatshirts; ''grandad'' shirts (collarless shirts); V-neck sweaters; cardigan sweaters; sweater vests; T-shirts (plain white or with text and/or images related to bands or the skinhead subculture); fitted blazers. Traditional skinheads sometimes wear tailored suits — particularly tonic (so named for the shiny material that changes colour in different light and angles), or in a Prince of Wales or Dogtooth check pattern. Some Oi!! and hardcore-oriented skinheads wear plain white ''wifebeater'' undershirts, especially in North America.
★ 'Women': Same as men, with addition of dress suits — composed of a ¾ length jacket and matching short skirt.
'Coats:' MA-1 type flight jackets (popular brands: Alpha) and Warrior), usually black or green; blue denim jackets (Levi's or Wrangler); Harrington jackets; monkey jackets; Crombie-style overcoats; short macs; sheepskin 3/4 length coats; donkey jackets; parkas.
'Bottoms:'
★ 'Men': Sta-Prest flat-fronted slacks and other dress trousers; Jeans (normally Levi's, Lee, Wrangler or Brutus), straight leg, with rolled cuffs (turn-ups) to show off boots, or with hem cut off and re-sewn; usually blue; sometimes splattered with bleach to resemble camouflage trousers, popular among punk-skinheads; combat trousers (plain or camouflage), popular among Oi! skins and scooterboys.
★ 'Women': Same jeans and trousers as men, or skirts and stockings. Some skingirls wear fishnet stockings and mini-skirts, a style introduced during the punk-influenced skinhead revival.
'Footwear:'
★ 'Men': boots, originally army surplus or generic workboots, then Dr. Martens (AKA ''Docs'', ''DMs'' or ''Doc Martens'') boots and shoes, and later brogues and loafers (especially among suedeheads). Other brands of boots have become popular, partly because Dr. Martens and Grinders are no longer made in England. During the 1960s, steel-toe boots were called ''bovver boots'' — thought to derive from the Cockney pronunciation of ''bother'' (in this context, meaning violence).
★ 'Women': Dr. Martens boots or shoes, monkey boots, loafers or brogues.
'Hats:' Trilby hats; pork pie hats; flat caps (AKA ''Scally cap'', ''Benny'' or ''driver cap'') or winter woolen hats (without bobble). Less common have been bowler hats (mostly among suedeheads and those influenced by the film A Clockwork Orange).
'Braces:' Various colours, usually no more than ¾ inch in width. In some areas, braces much wider than that may identify a skinhead as either unfashionable or white power. Braces are worn up in an X or Y-shape at the back. Some Oi!-oriented skinheads wear their hanging braces down, so they can be seen when wearing a jacket.
'Badges:' Button badges or sewn-on fabric patches with text and/or images related to bands or the skinhead subculture. Politically-minded skinheads sometimes wear badges related to their ideological views.
There are several different types of skinheads in terms of style. Some skinheads don't fit into any of these categories, and many display characteristics of more than one category. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant skinhead styles. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.
Traditional skinheads, also known as trads or Trojan skinheads, identify with the original 1960s skinhead subculture in terms of music, style, culture and working class pride. Unlike the other categories of skinheads, most traditionalist skinheads do not regard attitudes toward politics or racism as central to the subculture.
Oi! and punk-skinheads originated after the development of punk rock in the 1970s. They often have shorter hair and more tattoos than 1960s skinheads, and wear items such as higher boots, tighter jeans, T-shirts and flight jackets that their traditionalist counterparts. Although the original Oi! bands advocated a pro-worker populist stance, the Oi! music fanbase includes a wide range of political beliefs, from far left to far right.
Hardcore skinheads originated in the United States hardcore punk scene in the late 1970s (with bands such as Iron Cross, Agnostic Front, Cro-mags, Sheer Terror, Warzone and Murphy's Law). They differ from traditional skinheads by their musical tastes and a style of dress that is less strict. Political views vary, and are not essential to this group.
Some skinheads, particularly highly political ones, attach significance to the colour of boot laces, braces, and (less commonly) flight jackets. Some use them to indicate beliefs or affiliations. The particular colours used have varied regionally, so only skinheads from the same area are likely to interpret them accurately. In many areas laces must be 'laddered' - arranged with the outside laces horizontal and parallel, resembling a ladder - to be considered of any significance. The "braces and laces game" has largely fallen into disuse, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colours for fashion purposes.
Tattoos have been popular among many skinheads since at least the 1970s revival. In 1980s Britain, some skinheads had tattoos on their faces or foreheads (mainly those associated with the bonehead/glue-sniffing scenes of London's Leicester Square), although the practice has since fallen out of favour. Popular skinhead tattoos have included: a crucified skinhead (designed by Mick Furbank for the Last Resort skinhead shop in Aldgate) or other skinhead images; bulldog; spider webs on outer elbows or other areas of the body, Sailor Jerry-style tattoos; sparrows; boots; music-related logos; national or regional flags; images related to A Clockwork Orange; laurel wreath; rose; crossed riveting hammers (similar to those in West Ham United logo); weapons (e.g. brass knuckles, bats, switchblades); slogans such as: ''Oi!'', ''ACAB'' (All Cops Are Bastards), ''SKIN'', ''Skinhead'' or ''Bootboy''.
Tattoos popular among anti-racist skinheads include: a Trojan helmet; anti-Nazi logo; skinhead smashing a racist symbol; crucified skinhead (two-tone black and white), images of black and white skinheads together (e.g.shaking hands); anti-racist slogans (e.g. ''Smash Fascism'', ''AFA''; ''SHARP''; ''ANTIFA''). (Note: redskins and anarchist skins may have political symbols such as red stars, red flags, hammer and sickles or anarchy symbols.)
Tattoos common among white power skinheads include: Swastika or other World War II Nazi symbols (such as SS symbols); three 7s (Afrikaner Resistance Movement logo); flags (e.g. of the wearer's home country, of Nazi Germany or of the American Confederacy); crossed claw hammers or other Hammerskins symbols,; Ku Klux Klan symbols; white nationalist slogans such as: ''White Pride'', ''White Power'', ''WP'', ''88'' (Heil Hitler), ''1488'' (Fourteen Words/Heil Hitler), ''HFFH'' (Hammerskins Forever, Forever Hammerskins), ''Blood & Honour'' (or ''B&H''); Celtic cross or other Celtic symbols; Runes, Vikings or other Nordic symbols (which white power skins use to symbolize white culture.)
The skinhead subculture was originally associated with ska, rocksteady and reggae music, by artists such as Desmond Dekker, Derrick Morgan, Laurel Aitken, Symarip and The Pioneers. The link between skinheads and reggae led to the development of a subgenre known as skinhead reggae. Many of the early skinheads also enjoyed soul music and rhythm and blues. Suedeheads of the early 1970s also listened to British glam rock bands such as The Sweet, Slade and Mott the Hoople.[19][42]
The most popular music style for late-1970s skinheads was 2 Tone (also called Two Tone), which was a musical fusion of ska, rocksteady and punk rock.[43] The 2 Tone genre was named after a Coventry, England record label that featured bands such as The Specials, Madness and The Selecter.[44][45][46] The record label scored many top 20 hits, and eventually a number one.
Some late 1970s skinheads also liked certain punk rock bands, such as The Clash, Sham 69 and Menace; and by the late 1970s, the Oi! subgenre was embraced by many skinheads and punks.[47] Musically, Oi! combines elements of punk, football chants, pub rock and British glam rock.[48]
The Oi! scene was partly a response to a sense that many participants in the early punk scene were, in the words of The Business guitarist Steve Kent, "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic...and losing touch".[49] Some forefathers of Oi! were Sham 69, Cock Sparrer, Skrewdriver and Menace. The term Oi! as a musical genre is said to come from the band Cockney Rejects and journalist Garry Bushell, who championed the genre in ''Sounds'' magazine.[50][51][48] Notable Oi! bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s include Angelic Upstarts, Blitz, The Business, Last Resort, Combat 84 and The 4-Skins.[53] Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands included skins, punks and people who fit into neither category (sometimes called herberts).
American Oi! began in the 1980s with bands such as The Press, Iron Cross, The Bruisers, Anti-Heros and Forced Reality. American skinheads created a link between their subculture and hardcore punk music, with bands such as Warzone, Agnostic Front, and Cro-Mags. The Oi! style has also spread to other parts of the world, and remains popular with many skinheads. Many later Oi! bands have combined influences from early American hardcore and 1970s British streetpunk.
Although many white power skinheads listened to Oi! music, they also developed a separate genre known as Rock Against Communism (RAC).[54] The most notable RAC band was Skrewdriver, which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a neo-Nazi band after the first lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed.[55][56][57] RAC started out musically similar to Oi! and punk rock, and has adopted some elements from heavy metal and other types of rock music.
1. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
2. Mod: A Very British Phenomenon, , Terry, Rawlings, Omnibus Press, , ISBN 0-7119-6813-6
3. http://www.modculture.co.uk/culture/archive.php?category=modscenepast Articles from Modculture.com
4. Mods!, , Richard, Barnes, Eel Pie Publishing Ltd, , ISBN 0-85965-173-8
5. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
6. Trojan Mod Reggae Box Set liner notes, , Dave, Edwards, Trojan Records, , TJETD020
7. Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes, , , Old Skool Jim, Trojan Records, , TJETD169
8. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
9. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
10. Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness
11. http://www.reggaereggaereggae.com/Special%20Articles.htm
12. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
13. Straight From His Own Gob - Noddy Holder interview
14. http://www.brumbeat.net/aslade.htm
15. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A454925
16. http://www.skinhead.no/content/articles/richardallen.asp
17. http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/sex/gensexco.htm
18. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
19. Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes, , Michael, de Konigh, Trojan Records, , TJETD003
20. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
21. Violence In Our Minds - The Skinhead Nation
22. Monty Montgomery of the Pyramids/Symarip interview
23. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
24. No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
25. REDSKINS - The Interview, 1986
26. http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/newyorkskinheads.htm
27. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/oppressed/
28. http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/sharpskinheads.htm
29. Neither Red Or Racist - The Skinhead Nation
30. No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
31. http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/sharpskinheads.htm
32. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/oppressed/
33. http://www.geocities.com/revolutiontimes/rtint2.htm
34. http://www.geocities.com/capitolhill/lobby/3475/index2.html
35. http://www.stuffmagazine.com/articles/index.aspx?id=1519
36. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
37. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/06/national/main2440306.shtml
38. Skinhead, , Nick, Knight, Omnibus Press, , ISBN 0-7119-0052-3)
39. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
40. RudeBoy/Skinhead Style - Ruder Than the Web!
41. Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes, , Michael, de Konigh, Trojan Records, , TJETD003
42. http://www.themilkfactory.co.uk/interviews/rhkiw.htm
43. The 2-Tone discography
44. http://2-tone.info/articles/books.html
45. Moskowitz, David V. (2006). Caribbean Popular Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 270. ISBN 0-313-33158-8
46. http://www.thespecials.com/history3.php
47. Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", Vox, June 1993
48. Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
49. Robb, John (2006). ''Punk Rock: An Oral History'' (London: Elbury Press). ISBN 0-09-190511-7
50. Turner, Jeff; Garry Bushell (2005). Cockney Reject. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1 84454 0545
51. http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/1196/rejects.html
52. Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
53. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
54. http://www.aryanunity.com/memoirs8.html
55. http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdriverinterview.htm
56. http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdrivecuttings.htm
57. http://www.skrewdriver.net/diamond.html
★ Smiling Smash Chas Smash of Madness discusses skinhead culture
★ Reggae, Reggae, Reggae The skinhead movement and reggae music
★ Skinhead Nation Stories from skinhead history in Europe and the US
★ Skinhead Moonstomp Oi! and reggae MP3 site
★ Oi! the Truth History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell
★ Skinhead Style Traditional skinhead fashions
★ Trojan Records Site with information about ska and skinheads
★ 2 Tone Info Information about the 2 Tone scene
★ Skinhead and subculture In Asia
Skinhead with scooter
| Contents |
| History |
| Racism, anti-racism and politics |
| Political categories |
| Style and clothing |
| Style categories |
| Laces and braces |
| Tattoos |
| Music |
| Footnotes |
| External links |
History
In the late 1950s, the United Kingdom's entrenched class system limited most working class people's educational, housing, and economic opportunities. However, Britain's post-war economic boom led to an increase in disposable income among many young people. Some of those youths spent that income on new fashions popularised by American soul groups, British R&B bands, certain movie actors, and Carnaby Street clothing merchants.[2][3]
These youths became known as the mods, a youth subculture noted for its consumerism — and devotion to fashion, music and scooters.[4] Mods of lesser means made do with practical styles that suited their lifestyle and employment circumstances: steel-toe boots, straight-leg jeans or Sta-Prest trousers, button-up shirts, and braces (called suspenders in the USA). When possible, these working-class mods spent their money on suits and other sharp outfits to wear at dancehalls, where they enjoyed soul, ska, bluebeat and rocksteady music.[1][6]
Around 1965, a schism developed between the ''peacock mods'', who were less violent and always wore the latest expensive clothes, and the ''hard mods'' (also known as ''gang mods''), who were identified by their shorter hair and more working-class image.[7] Also known as ''lemonheads'' and ''peanuts'', these hard mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968.[8] Their shorter hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair can be a liability in industrial jobs and a disadvantage in streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the more bourgeois hippie culture popular at the time.[9]
In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in Jamaican rude boy styles and culture, especially the music: ska, rocksteady, and early reggae (before the tempo slowed down and lyrics became focused on topics like black nationalism and Rastafarianism).[10][11][1] Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look, as a marketing strategy.[13][14][15] The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by Richard Allen, notably ''Skinhead'' and ''Skinhead Escapes''.[16]
[17] Due to largescale British migration to Perth, Western Australia, many British youths in Perth joined skinhead/sharpies gangs in Medina, Rockingham, Armadale, Kelmscott, Lynwood and Thornlie in the 1960s; forming their own Australian style.
By the 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the ''suedeheads'' (defined by the ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb), ''smoothies'' (often with shoulder-length hairstyles), and ''bootboys'' (with mod-length hair; associated with gangs and hooliganism).[9]
[19]
[20] Some fashion trends returned to mod roots, reintroducing brogues, loafers, suits, and the slacks-and-sweater look.
In 1977, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of punk rock. Most of these revival skinheads were a reaction to the commercialism of punk and adopted a sharp, smart look in line with the original look of the 1969 skinheads and included Gary Hodges and Hoxton Tom McCourt (both later of the band the 4-Skins) and Suggs, later of the band Madness. From 1979 onwards, skinheads with even shorter hair and less emphasis on traditional styles grew in numbers and grabbed media attention, mostly as a result of their involvement with football hooliganism. These skinheads wore punk-influenced styles like higher boots than before (14-20 eyelets) and tighter jeans (sometimes splattered with bleach). However, there were still several skinheads who preferred the original mod-inspired styles. Eventually different interpretations of the skinhead subculture expanded beyond The UK and Europe. One major example is that in the United States, certain segments of the hardcore punk scene embraced skinhead style and developed its own version of the subculture.
Racism, anti-racism and politics
In the late 1960s, some skinheads (including black skinheads) had engaged in violence against random Pakistanis and other South Asian immigrants (an act known as ''Paki bashing'' in common slang).[21][22][9] Although these early skinheads were not part of an organized racist movement, by the early 1970s there were skinheads who aligned themselves with the white nationalist National Front. However, there had also been anti-racist and leftist skinheads from the beginning, especially in areas such as Scotland and northern England.[24] [25] As the 1970s progressed, the racially-motivated skinhead violence in the UK became more partisan, and groups such as the National Front and the British Movement, saw a rise in skinheads among their ranks. Although many skinheads rejected political labels being applied to their subculture, some working class skinheads blamed non-white immigrants for economic and social problems, and agreed with far right organizations' positions against blacks and Asians.
By the late 1970s, some openly neo-Nazi groups were largely composed of skinheads, and by this point, the the mass media, and subsequently the general public, had largely come to view skinheads exclusively as a subculture promoting white power. However, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, many skinheads, suedeheads, ex-skinheads and football casuals in the UK rejected the dogma of both the left and right. This anti-extremist attitude was musically typified by Oi! bands such as Cockney Rejects, The 4-Skins and The Business.
Some skinheads countered the neo-Nazi stereotype by forming anti-racist organizations, such as Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP) which was founded in New York City in 1987 and spread to several other countries, and Anti-Racist Action (ARA), which started in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1988.[26][27][28][29] Other less-political skinheads also spoke out against neo-Nazis and in support of traditional skinhead culture; two examples of this were the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland (who coined the phrase ''Spirit of 69''), and the publishers of the ''Hard As Nails'' zine in England.[24]
Political categories
There are several different political categories of skinheads. However, many skinheads don't fit into any of these categories. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant forces of skinhead political groupings. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.
Anti-racist skinheads, sometimes known as SHARPs, are aggressively opposed to neo-Nazism and racism, although not always political in terms of other issues.[28][27]The label ''SHARP'' is sometimes used to describe all anti-racist skinheads, even if they aren't members of a SHARP organisation. Some anti-racist skinheads have been involved with political groups such as Anti-Fascist Action or Anti-Racist Action. White power and traditional skinheads (especially in the U.S.) sometimes refer to them as ''baldies''.
Apolitical skinheads either oppose all politics in general, are politically moderate, or keep their personal political views out of the skinhead subculture. Skinheads on either extreme of the political spectrum sometimes refer to this type as a ''fencesitter'' or ''fencewalker''.
Left wing skinheads are anti-racist and anti-fascist, taking a militant pro-working class stance. This category includes redskins and anarchist skinheads.[33] The most well-known organization in this category is Red and Anarchist Skinheads.[34]
Right wing skinheads are conservative and patriotic, but not necessarily extreme or fascist. This type of skinhead seems to be common in the United States.[35]
White power skinheads or neo-Nazi skinheads are racist, extremely nationalist and highly political.[1][37] Many Nazi skinheads have no connection to the original 1960s skinhead culture in terms of style or interests. SHARPs and traditional skinheads often refer to them as ''boneheads''.
Style and clothing
In addition to short hair, skinheads are identified by their specific clothing styles. Skinhead fashions have evolved somewhat since the formation of the subculture in the 1960s, and certain clothing styles have been more prevalent in specific geographic locations and time periods. The following list includes many of the clothing articles that have been worn by skinheads.[38][39][40]
'Hair:'
★ 'Men': Originally, between a 2 and 3 grade clip-guard (short, but not bald); beginning in the late 1970s, typically shaved closer, with no greater than a number 2 guard. Now some skinheads clip their hair with no guard, and some even shave it with a razor. This started with the introduction of the Oi! scene. Some skinheads sport sideburns of various styles, usually neatly trimmed.
★ 'Women': In the 1960s, many female skinheads had ''normal'' or mod-influenced hairstyles. During the revival, many started wearing a Chelsea hairstyle, which, in some cases, is a shorter punk-influenced version of the feathercut. A feathercut is short on top (the crown), with fringes at the front, back and sides. Some Chelsea cuts are shaved almost entirely at the back, only leaving fringes in the front, and bangs. Feathercuts tend to have longer fringes.
'Tops:'
★ 'Men': fitted Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Brutus, Jaytex, Arnold Palmer and other brands of button-up or polo shirts; Lonsdale shirts or sweatshirts; ''grandad'' shirts (collarless shirts); V-neck sweaters; cardigan sweaters; sweater vests; T-shirts (plain white or with text and/or images related to bands or the skinhead subculture); fitted blazers. Traditional skinheads sometimes wear tailored suits — particularly tonic (so named for the shiny material that changes colour in different light and angles), or in a Prince of Wales or Dogtooth check pattern. Some Oi!! and hardcore-oriented skinheads wear plain white ''wifebeater'' undershirts, especially in North America.
★ 'Women': Same as men, with addition of dress suits — composed of a ¾ length jacket and matching short skirt.
'Coats:' MA-1 type flight jackets (popular brands: Alpha) and Warrior), usually black or green; blue denim jackets (Levi's or Wrangler); Harrington jackets; monkey jackets; Crombie-style overcoats; short macs; sheepskin 3/4 length coats; donkey jackets; parkas.
'Bottoms:'
★ 'Men': Sta-Prest flat-fronted slacks and other dress trousers; Jeans (normally Levi's, Lee, Wrangler or Brutus), straight leg, with rolled cuffs (turn-ups) to show off boots, or with hem cut off and re-sewn; usually blue; sometimes splattered with bleach to resemble camouflage trousers, popular among punk-skinheads; combat trousers (plain or camouflage), popular among Oi! skins and scooterboys.
★ 'Women': Same jeans and trousers as men, or skirts and stockings. Some skingirls wear fishnet stockings and mini-skirts, a style introduced during the punk-influenced skinhead revival.
'Footwear:'
★ 'Men': boots, originally army surplus or generic workboots, then Dr. Martens (AKA ''Docs'', ''DMs'' or ''Doc Martens'') boots and shoes, and later brogues and loafers (especially among suedeheads). Other brands of boots have become popular, partly because Dr. Martens and Grinders are no longer made in England. During the 1960s, steel-toe boots were called ''bovver boots'' — thought to derive from the Cockney pronunciation of ''bother'' (in this context, meaning violence).
★ 'Women': Dr. Martens boots or shoes, monkey boots, loafers or brogues.
'Hats:' Trilby hats; pork pie hats; flat caps (AKA ''Scally cap'', ''Benny'' or ''driver cap'') or winter woolen hats (without bobble). Less common have been bowler hats (mostly among suedeheads and those influenced by the film A Clockwork Orange).
'Braces:' Various colours, usually no more than ¾ inch in width. In some areas, braces much wider than that may identify a skinhead as either unfashionable or white power. Braces are worn up in an X or Y-shape at the back. Some Oi!-oriented skinheads wear their hanging braces down, so they can be seen when wearing a jacket.
'Badges:' Button badges or sewn-on fabric patches with text and/or images related to bands or the skinhead subculture. Politically-minded skinheads sometimes wear badges related to their ideological views.
Style categories
There are several different types of skinheads in terms of style. Some skinheads don't fit into any of these categories, and many display characteristics of more than one category. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant skinhead styles. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.
Traditional skinheads, also known as trads or Trojan skinheads, identify with the original 1960s skinhead subculture in terms of music, style, culture and working class pride. Unlike the other categories of skinheads, most traditionalist skinheads do not regard attitudes toward politics or racism as central to the subculture.
Oi! and punk-skinheads originated after the development of punk rock in the 1970s. They often have shorter hair and more tattoos than 1960s skinheads, and wear items such as higher boots, tighter jeans, T-shirts and flight jackets that their traditionalist counterparts. Although the original Oi! bands advocated a pro-worker populist stance, the Oi! music fanbase includes a wide range of political beliefs, from far left to far right.
Hardcore skinheads originated in the United States hardcore punk scene in the late 1970s (with bands such as Iron Cross, Agnostic Front, Cro-mags, Sheer Terror, Warzone and Murphy's Law). They differ from traditional skinheads by their musical tastes and a style of dress that is less strict. Political views vary, and are not essential to this group.
Laces and braces
Some skinheads, particularly highly political ones, attach significance to the colour of boot laces, braces, and (less commonly) flight jackets. Some use them to indicate beliefs or affiliations. The particular colours used have varied regionally, so only skinheads from the same area are likely to interpret them accurately. In many areas laces must be 'laddered' - arranged with the outside laces horizontal and parallel, resembling a ladder - to be considered of any significance. The "braces and laces game" has largely fallen into disuse, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colours for fashion purposes.
Tattoos
Tattoos have been popular among many skinheads since at least the 1970s revival. In 1980s Britain, some skinheads had tattoos on their faces or foreheads (mainly those associated with the bonehead/glue-sniffing scenes of London's Leicester Square), although the practice has since fallen out of favour. Popular skinhead tattoos have included: a crucified skinhead (designed by Mick Furbank for the Last Resort skinhead shop in Aldgate) or other skinhead images; bulldog; spider webs on outer elbows or other areas of the body, Sailor Jerry-style tattoos; sparrows; boots; music-related logos; national or regional flags; images related to A Clockwork Orange; laurel wreath; rose; crossed riveting hammers (similar to those in West Ham United logo); weapons (e.g. brass knuckles, bats, switchblades); slogans such as: ''Oi!'', ''ACAB'' (All Cops Are Bastards), ''SKIN'', ''Skinhead'' or ''Bootboy''.
Tattoos popular among anti-racist skinheads include: a Trojan helmet; anti-Nazi logo; skinhead smashing a racist symbol; crucified skinhead (two-tone black and white), images of black and white skinheads together (e.g.shaking hands); anti-racist slogans (e.g. ''Smash Fascism'', ''AFA''; ''SHARP''; ''ANTIFA''). (Note: redskins and anarchist skins may have political symbols such as red stars, red flags, hammer and sickles or anarchy symbols.)
Tattoos common among white power skinheads include: Swastika or other World War II Nazi symbols (such as SS symbols); three 7s (Afrikaner Resistance Movement logo); flags (e.g. of the wearer's home country, of Nazi Germany or of the American Confederacy); crossed claw hammers or other Hammerskins symbols,; Ku Klux Klan symbols; white nationalist slogans such as: ''White Pride'', ''White Power'', ''WP'', ''88'' (Heil Hitler), ''1488'' (Fourteen Words/Heil Hitler), ''HFFH'' (Hammerskins Forever, Forever Hammerskins), ''Blood & Honour'' (or ''B&H''); Celtic cross or other Celtic symbols; Runes, Vikings or other Nordic symbols (which white power skins use to symbolize white culture.)
Music
The skinhead subculture was originally associated with ska, rocksteady and reggae music, by artists such as Desmond Dekker, Derrick Morgan, Laurel Aitken, Symarip and The Pioneers. The link between skinheads and reggae led to the development of a subgenre known as skinhead reggae. Many of the early skinheads also enjoyed soul music and rhythm and blues. Suedeheads of the early 1970s also listened to British glam rock bands such as The Sweet, Slade and Mott the Hoople.[19][42]
The most popular music style for late-1970s skinheads was 2 Tone (also called Two Tone), which was a musical fusion of ska, rocksteady and punk rock.[43] The 2 Tone genre was named after a Coventry, England record label that featured bands such as The Specials, Madness and The Selecter.[44][45][46] The record label scored many top 20 hits, and eventually a number one.
Some late 1970s skinheads also liked certain punk rock bands, such as The Clash, Sham 69 and Menace; and by the late 1970s, the Oi! subgenre was embraced by many skinheads and punks.[47] Musically, Oi! combines elements of punk, football chants, pub rock and British glam rock.[48]
The Oi! scene was partly a response to a sense that many participants in the early punk scene were, in the words of The Business guitarist Steve Kent, "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic...and losing touch".[49] Some forefathers of Oi! were Sham 69, Cock Sparrer, Skrewdriver and Menace. The term Oi! as a musical genre is said to come from the band Cockney Rejects and journalist Garry Bushell, who championed the genre in ''Sounds'' magazine.[50][51][48] Notable Oi! bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s include Angelic Upstarts, Blitz, The Business, Last Resort, Combat 84 and The 4-Skins.[53] Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands included skins, punks and people who fit into neither category (sometimes called herberts).
American Oi! began in the 1980s with bands such as The Press, Iron Cross, The Bruisers, Anti-Heros and Forced Reality. American skinheads created a link between their subculture and hardcore punk music, with bands such as Warzone, Agnostic Front, and Cro-Mags. The Oi! style has also spread to other parts of the world, and remains popular with many skinheads. Many later Oi! bands have combined influences from early American hardcore and 1970s British streetpunk.
Although many white power skinheads listened to Oi! music, they also developed a separate genre known as Rock Against Communism (RAC).[54] The most notable RAC band was Skrewdriver, which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a neo-Nazi band after the first lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed.[55][56][57] RAC started out musically similar to Oi! and punk rock, and has adopted some elements from heavy metal and other types of rock music.
Footnotes
1. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
2. Mod: A Very British Phenomenon, , Terry, Rawlings, Omnibus Press, , ISBN 0-7119-6813-6
3. http://www.modculture.co.uk/culture/archive.php?category=modscenepast Articles from Modculture.com
4. Mods!, , Richard, Barnes, Eel Pie Publishing Ltd, , ISBN 0-85965-173-8
5. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
6. Trojan Mod Reggae Box Set liner notes, , Dave, Edwards, Trojan Records, , TJETD020
7. Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes, , , Old Skool Jim, Trojan Records, , TJETD169
8. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
9. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
10. Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness
11. http://www.reggaereggaereggae.com/Special%20Articles.htm
12. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
13. Straight From His Own Gob - Noddy Holder interview
14. http://www.brumbeat.net/aslade.htm
15. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A454925
16. http://www.skinhead.no/content/articles/richardallen.asp
17. http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/sex/gensexco.htm
18. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
19. Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes, , Michael, de Konigh, Trojan Records, , TJETD003
20. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
21. Violence In Our Minds - The Skinhead Nation
22. Monty Montgomery of the Pyramids/Symarip interview
23. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep
24. No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
25. REDSKINS - The Interview, 1986
26. http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/newyorkskinheads.htm
27. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/oppressed/
28. http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/sharpskinheads.htm
29. Neither Red Or Racist - The Skinhead Nation
30. No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
31. http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/sharpskinheads.htm
32. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/oppressed/
33. http://www.geocities.com/revolutiontimes/rtint2.htm
34. http://www.geocities.com/capitolhill/lobby/3475/index2.html
35. http://www.stuffmagazine.com/articles/index.aspx?id=1519
36. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1
37. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/06/national/main2440306.shtml
38. Skinhead, , Nick, Knight, Omnibus Press, , ISBN 0-7119-0052-3)
39. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
40. RudeBoy/Skinhead Style - Ruder Than the Web!
41. Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes, , Michael, de Konigh, Trojan Records, , TJETD003
42. http://www.themilkfactory.co.uk/interviews/rhkiw.htm
43. The 2-Tone discography
44. http://2-tone.info/articles/books.html
45. Moskowitz, David V. (2006). Caribbean Popular Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 270. ISBN 0-313-33158-8
46. http://www.thespecials.com/history3.php
47. Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", Vox, June 1993
48. Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
49. Robb, John (2006). ''Punk Rock: An Oral History'' (London: Elbury Press). ISBN 0-09-190511-7
50. Turner, Jeff; Garry Bushell (2005). Cockney Reject. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1 84454 0545
51. http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/1196/rejects.html
52. Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
53. Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible, , George, Marshall, S.T. Publishing, , ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
54. http://www.aryanunity.com/memoirs8.html
55. http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdriverinterview.htm
56. http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdrivecuttings.htm
57. http://www.skrewdriver.net/diamond.html
External links
★ Smiling Smash Chas Smash of Madness discusses skinhead culture
★ Reggae, Reggae, Reggae The skinhead movement and reggae music
★ Skinhead Nation Stories from skinhead history in Europe and the US
★ Skinhead Moonstomp Oi! and reggae MP3 site
★ Oi! the Truth History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell
★ Skinhead Style Traditional skinhead fashions
★ Trojan Records Site with information about ska and skinheads
★ 2 Tone Info Information about the 2 Tone scene
★ Skinhead and subculture In Asia
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