STARLING

'Starlings' are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family 'Sturnidae'. The name "Sturnidae" comes from the Latin word for Starling, ''sturnus''. Starlings occur naturally only in the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa), some forms as far east as Australia, but several European and Asian species have been introduced to North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
Starlings have strong feet, their flight is strong and direct, and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Several species live around human habitation, and are effectively omnivores. Many species search for food by opening the bill after probing it into dense vegetation; this behavior is called "open-bill probing" or is referred to by the German word "zirkeln" (IPA: ['tsɪʁkl̩n]).
Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Most species nest in holes, laying blue or white eggs.
Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, are called mynas, and many African species are known as 'glossy starlings' because of their iridescent plumage.
The shortest-bodied species is Kenrick's Starling (''Poeoptera kenricki''), at 15 centimetres (6 in), but the lightest-weight species is Abbott's Starling (''Poeoptera femoralis''), at 34 grams (1.2 oz). The largest starlings are the mynas of the genus ''Mino'', especially the Yellow-faced (''Mino dumontii'') and Long-tailed Mynas (''Mino kreffti''). These mynas can exceed 30 centimetres (1 ft) and weigh over 225 grams (8& oz).
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European Starlings are in decline in Europe. However, when introduced to North America they have been a factor in reducing native cavity nesting bird populations (such as Bluebirds and Red-headed Woodpeckers) by competing aggressively for nesting cavities.
Starlings were first brought to North America in the 1890s by Eugene Schieffelin, a wealthy New York pharmacologist and Shakespeare enthusiast (NGS 2002). It is said (though no evidence supports this) that his purpose was to introduce into North America all the birds mentioned in William Shakespeare's plays. As starlings receive a brief mention in Henry IV, Part 1, Schieffelin introduced 60 of the birds in Central Park, New York.
Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations, and have been known to imbed sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including car alarms, and human speech patterns. The birds can recognize particular individuals by their calls, and are currently the subject of research into the evolution of human language.^[1]

Contents

Systematics

Oriental-Australasian clade

Afrotropical-Palearctic clade

Unresolved

References

Footnotes

External links

Systematics

The starlings belong to the superfamily Muscicapoidea, together with thrushes, flycatchers and chats, as well as dippers which are quite distant and Mimidae (thrashers and mockingbirds). The latter are apparently the Sturnidae's closest living relatives, replace them in the Americas, and have a rather similar but more solitary lifestyle. They are morphologically quite similar too - a partly albinistic specimen of a mimid, mislabelled as to suggest an Old World origin, was for many decades believed to represent an extinct starling (see Rodrigues Starling for details).
The oxpeckers are sometimes placed here as a subfamily, but the weight of evidence has shifted towards granting them full family ststus as a more basal member of the Sturnidae-Mimidae group, derived from an early expansion into Africa.
Usually the starlings are considered a family, as is done here. Sibley & Monroe (1990) included the mimids in the family and demoted the starlings to tribe rank, as 'Sturnini'. This treatment was used by Zuccon ''et al.'' (2006). However, the grouping of Sibley & Monroe (besides leaving the subfamily rank vacant) is overly coarse due to methodological drawbacks of their DNA-DNA hybridization technique and most of their proposed revisions of taxonomic rank have not been accepted (see for example Ciconiiformes). The all-inclusive Sturnidae grouping is all but noninformative as regards biogeography, and obscures the evolutionary distinctness of the three lineages. Establishing a valid name for the clade consisting of Sibley/Monroe's "pan-Sturnidae" would nonetheless be desirable to contrast them with the other major lineages of Muscicapoidea.
Starlings probably originated in the general area of the East Asia, perhaps towards the southwestern Pacific, as evidenced by the number of plesiomorphic lineages to occur there. Expansion into Africa appears to have occurred later, as most derived forms are found there. An alternative scenario would be African origin for the entire "sturnoid" (as per Zuccon ''et al.'' 2006) group, with the oxpeckers representing an ancient relict and the mimids arriving in South America. This is contradicted by the North American distribution of the most basal Mimidae.(Cibois & Cracraft 2004, Zuccon ''et al.'' 2006)
As the fossil record is limited to quite Recent forms, the proposed Early Miocene (about 25-20 mya) divergence dates for the "sturnoids" lineages must be considered extemely tentative. Given the overall evidence for origin of most Passeri families in the first half of the Miocene, it appears to be not too far off the mark however.(Zuccon ''et al.'' 2006)
Recent studies (Cibois & Cracraft 2004, Zuccon ''et al.'' 2006) identified two major clades of this family, corresponding to the generally drab, often striped, largish "atypical mynas" and other mainly Asian-Pacific lineages, and the often smaller, sometimes highly apomorphic taxa which are most common in Africa and the Palearctic, usually have metallic coloration, and in a number of species also bright carotinoid plumage colors on the underside. Inside this latter group, there is a clade consisting of species which, again, are usually not too brightly-colored, and which consists of the "typical" myna-''Sturnus'' assemblage.
Interestingly, the Philippine creepers, a single genus of 3 species of treecreeper-like birds appear to be highly apomorphic members of the more initial radiation of the Sturnidae (Zuccon ''et al.'' 2006). While this may seem odd ad first glance, their placement has always been contentious. In addition, biogeography virtually rules out a close relationship of Philippine creepers and treecreepers, as neither the latter nor their close relatives seem have ever reached the Wallacea, let alone the Philippines. Nonetheless, their inclusion in the Sturnidae is not entirely final and eventually they may remain a separate family.
Genus sequence follows traditional treatments. This is apparently not entirely correct, with ''Scissirostrum'' closer to ''Aplonis'' than to ''Gracula'' for example, and ''Acridotheres'' among the most advanced genera. Too few taxa have already been studied as regards their relationships however, and thus a change in sequence has to wait.
The upcoming review by Lovette & Rubenstein (in press) promises to resolve most uncertainties (though not the most pressing question: how ''Sturnus'' will be split up). Until it has been published, the following list should be considered preliminary.

Oriental-Australasian clade

★ 'Genus ''Rhabdornis''' - Philippine creepers (3 species; placement here requires confirmation)

★ 'Genus ''Aplonis''' - Pacific starlings (c.20 living species, 4-5 recently extinct)

★ 'Genus ''Mino'''

★
★ Yellow-faced Myna, ''Mino dumontii''

★
★ Golden Myna, ''Mino anais''

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★ Long-tailed Myna, ''Mino kreffti''

★ 'Genus ''Basilornis'''

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★ Sulawesi Myna, ''Basilornis celebensis''

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★ Helmeted Myna, ''Basilornis galeatus''

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★ Long-crested Myna, ''Basilornis corythaix''

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★ Apo Myna, ''Basilornis mirandus''


★ 'Genus ''Sarcops'''

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★ Coleto, ''Sarcops calvus''

★ 'Genus ''Streptocitta'''

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★ White-necked Myna, ''Streptocitta albicollis''

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★ Bare-eyed Myna, ''Streptocitta albertinae''

★ 'Genus ''Enodes'''

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★ Fiery-browed Myna, ''Enodes erythrophris''

★ 'Genus ''Scissirostrum'''

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★ Finch-billed Myna, ''Scissirostrum dubium''

★ 'Genus ''Ampeliceps''' - Golden-crested Myna

★ 'Genus ''Gracula''' - hill mynas (5 species)

Afrotropical-Palearctic clade

★ 'Genus ''Acridotheres''' - typical mynas (8 species)

★ 'Genus ''Leucopsar''' - Bali Starling

★ 'Genus ''Sturnia''' (often included in ''Sturnus'')

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★ Daurian Starling, ''Sturnia sturnina''

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★ Chestnut-cheeked Starling, ''Sturnia philippensis''

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★ White-shouldered Starling, ''Sturnia sinensis''

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★ White-headed Starling, ''Sturnia erythropygia''

★ 'Genus ''Sturnus''' - typical starlings (about 12 species; includes probably valid genera ''Gracupica'', ''Pastor'' and ''Temenuchus''; but highly paraphyletic)

★ 'Genus ''Creatophora''' - Wattled Starling

★ 'Genus ''Notopholia''' (sometimes placed in ''Lamprotornis'')

★
★ Black-bellied Glossy-starling, ''Notopholia corrusca''

★ 'Genus ''Coccycolius''' - Iris Glossy-starling or Emerald Starling (sometimes placed in ''Lamprotornis'')


★ 'Genus ''Lamprotornis''' - typical glossy-starlings (20 species; monophyly requires confirmation)

★ 'Genus ''Cinnyricinclus'''

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★ Violet-backed Starling, ''Cinnyricinclus leucogaster''

★ 'Genus ''Poeoptera''' (formerly ''Pholia'', sometimes included in ''Cinnyricinclus'')

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★ Sharpe's Starling, ''Poeoptera sharpii''

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★ Abbott's Starling, ''Poeoptera femoralis''

★ 'Genus ''Saroglossa''' (possibly paraphyletic)

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★ Spot-winged Starling, ''Saroglossa spiloptera''

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★ Madagascar Starling, ''Saroglossa aurata''

★ 'Genus ''Spreo''' (paraphyletic with ''Lamprotornis'' and might be included there)

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★ African Pied Starling, ''Spreo bicolor''

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★ Fischer's Starling, ''Spreo fischeri''

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★ White-crowned Starling, ''Spreo albicapillus''

★ 'Genus ''Compsarus'''

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★ Golden-breasted Starling, ''Compsarus regius'' (sometimes placed in ''Lamprotornis'')

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★ Ashy Starling, ''Compsarus unicolor'' (sometimes placed in ''Spreo'')

★ 'Genus ''Onychognathus'''

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★ Red-winged Starling, ''Onychognathus morio''

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★ Slender-billed Starling, ''Onychognathus tenuirostris''

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★ Chestnut-winged Starling, ''Onychognathus fulgidus''

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★ Waller's Starling, ''Onychognathus walleri''

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★ Somali Starling, ''Onychognathus blythii''

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★ Socotra Starling, ''Onychognathus frater''

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★ Tristram's Starling, ''Onychognathus tristramii''

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★ Pale-winged Starling, ''Onychognathus nabouroup''

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★ Bristle-crowned Starling, ''Onychognathus salvadorii''

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★ White-billed Starling, ''Onychognathus albirostris''

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★ Neumann's Starling, ''Onychognathus neumanni''

★ 'Genus ''Poeoptera'''

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★ Narrow-tailed Starling, ''Poeoptera lugubris''

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★ Stuhlmann's Starling, ''Poeoptera stuhlmanni''

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★ Kenrick's Starling, ''Poeoptera kenricki''

★ 'Genus ''Grafisia'''

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★ White-collared Starling, ''Grafisia torquata''

★ 'Genus ''Speculipastor''' - Magpie Starling

★ 'Genus ''Neocichla'''

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★ Babbling Starling, ''Neocichla gutturalis''

Unresolved

The extinct Mascarene starlings are of uncertain relationships. Only one species is known from specimens taken while the bird was still extant; the other remains only known from subfossil bones and apparently one early traveller's description. The supposed "Leguat's Starling" ("''Necropsar leguati''") was eventually determined to be a mislabelled albino specimen of the Martinique Trembler (''Cinclocerthia gutturalis''), a mimid.
As the avifauna of the Mascarenes is predominantly of Indian origin though as old as to be highly distinct, it is not clear to which clade these starlings belong - or even if they are indeed starlings, as the Réunion Starling at least was highly aberrant and there have always been lingering dounbts about whether they are correctly placed here.

★ 'Genus ''Fregilupus''' - Réunion Starling (extinct, 1850s)

★ 'Genus ''Necropsar''' - Rodrigues Starling (extinct, late 18th century?)

References

★ (2004). Assessing the passerine 'tapestry': phylogenetic relationships of the Muscicapoidea inferred from nuclear DNA sequences. ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' '32'(1): 264–273. (HTML)

★ (in press): A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the starlings (Aves: Sturnidae). ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. Preprint PDF fulltext

★ (2002): ''Field Guide to the Birds of North America''. National Geographic, Washington DC. ISBN 0-792-26877-6

★ (1990): ''Distribution and taxonomy of the birds of the world: A Study in Molecular Evolution''. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. ISBN 0-300-04969-2

★ (2006): Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages of starlings, mynas and related taxa. ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' '41'(2): 333-344. (HTML abstract)

Footnotes

1. New York Times, May 2, 2006

External links

★ Starling videos on the Internet Bird Collection

★ RSPB starling page from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

★ [1] a huge flock of starlings enjoys playing with two resilient trees.

★ [2] Bird formations in San Rafael California