TAIPING REBELLION

The 'Taiping Rebellion' (or 'Rebellion of Great Peace') was a large-scale revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China, conducted from 1850 to 1864 by an army and civil administration inspired by Hakka self-proclaimed mystics named Hong Xiuquan and Yang Xiuqing. Hong was an unorthodox Christian convert who declared himself the new Messiah and younger brother of Jesus Christ. Yang Xiuqing was a former salesman of firewood in Guangxi, who frequently claimed to be able to act as a mouthpiece of God to direct the people and gain himself a large amount of political power. Hong, Yang and their followers established the 'Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace' (Simplified Chinese: 太平天国, Pinyin: Tàipíng Tiān Guó) and attained control of significant parts of southern China.
Most accurate sources put the total deaths during the 15 years of the rebellion at about 20 million civilians and army personnel.^[1] Some historians estimate the combination of natural disasters together with the political insurrections may have cost as many as 200 million Chinese lives between 1850 and 1865^[2]. That figure is generally thought to be an exaggeration, as it is approximately half the estimated population of China in 1851^[3]. Modern estimates are that China’s population had been about 410 million in 1850 and, after the Taiping, Nien, Muslim, Panthay, Miao and other smaller rebellions, amounted to about 350 million in 1873.^[4]. Nevertheless the Taiping Rebellion stands as the second bloodiest conflict in history, greater than World War I and behind only World War II. It happened at roughly the same time as the American Civil War. Artifacts from the Taiping period can be seen at the Taiping Kingdom History Museum in Nanjing, China.
Though almost certainly the largest civil war of the nineteenth century (in terms of numbers under arms), it is debatable whether the Taiping Rebellion involved more soldiers than the Napoleonic Wars earlier in the century, and so it is uncertain whether it was the largest war of the nineteenth century.
At the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864, more than 100,000 were killed in three days.

Background

Hong Xiuquan

In the mid-19th century, China under the Qing Dynasty suffered a series of natural disasters, economic problems and defeats at the hands of the Western powers--for example, the defeat by Great Britain in the First Opium War. The ruling Qing Dynasty (ethnically Manchu) was seen by the Chinese majority (ethnically Han) as ineffective and corrupt. Anti-Manchu sentiment was strongest in the south among the laboring classes, and it was these disaffected that flocked to the charismatic visionary Hong Xiuquan (a member of the Hakka minority). The sect's militarism grew in the 1840s, initially in response to its struggle to suppress bandits, but persecution by Qing authorities spurred the movement into a guerrilla rebellion and then into full-blown civil war.
The revolt began in Guangxi Province. After a previous battle of small scale that resulted in rebels' victory in the late December, 1850, in early January 1851, a ten-thousand strong rebel army organised by Feng Yunshan and Wei Changhui routed Imperial troops stationed at the town of Jintian. Heavenly Kingdom forces successfully drove back the Imperial reprisal, and on January 11, 1851, Hong Xiuquan formally declared the Jintian Uprising on his birthday (lunar calendar). Subsequently, in August 1851, Hong declared the establishment of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (''Taiping Tianguo'') with himself as absolute ruler.
The revolt rapidly spread northward. In March 1853, between 700,000 and 800,000 Taiping soldiers took Nanjing, killing 30,000 Imperial soldiers and slaughtering thousands of civilians. The city became the movement's capital and was renamed ''Tianjing'' (‘Heavenly Capital’).

Climax

At its height, the Heavenly Kingdom encompassed much of south and central China, centered on the fertile Yangtze river valley. Control of the river meant that the Taipings could easily supply their capital at Nanjing (which they renamed Tianjing). From there, the Taipings continued their assault. Two armies were sent west, to secure the upper reaches of the Yangtze. Two more armies were sent north to take the Imperial capital, Beijing. Potentially, these two expeditions could have acted as a giant pincer movement across the country. The western expedition met with some mixed success, but the attempt to take Beijing failed after being repulsed at the outskirts of Tianjin.

Downfall

In 1853, Hong withdrew from active control of policies and administration. His sanity progressively eroding, he devoted himself to meditation and more sensual pursuits, including his private harem.⁶
With their leader largely out of the picture, Taiping delegates tried to widen their popular support with the Chinese middle classes -- and to forge alliances with European powers -- but failed on both counts. Inside China, the rebellion faced resistance from the traditionalist middle class because of their hostility to many long-standing Chinese customs and Confucian values. The land-owning upper class, unsettled by the Taipings' peasant mannerisms and their policy of strict separation of the sexes, even for married couples, sided with the Imperial forces and their Western allies.
Following a setback near Beijing, they continued to expand westward, but spent most of their efforts maintaining their hold in the Yangtze valley. From 1860, the kingdom's fall was rapid.
An attempt to take Shanghai in August 1860 was repulsed by troops under the command of Frederick Townsend Ward, a force that would later become the 'Ever Victorious Army' led by 'Chinese' Gordon. Imperial forces were reorganized under the command of Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, and the Imperial reconquest began in earnest. By early 1864 Imperial control in most areas was well established.
Hong declared that God would defend Nanjing, but in June, with Imperial forces approaching, he died of food poisoning as the result of ingesting wild vegetables as the city began to run out of food. His body was buried in the former Ming Imperial Palace where it was later exhumed by the conquering Zeng to verify his death, then cremated. Hong's ashes were later blasted out of a cannon in order to ensure that his remains have no resting place as eternal punishment for the uprising.
Four months before the fall of the Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping, Hong Xiuquan passed the throne to Hong Tianguifu, his eldest son. However, Hong Tianguifu was unable to do anything to restore the Kingdom, so the Kingdom was quickly destroyed when Nanjing fell to the Imperial armies after vicious street-by-street fighting. Most of the princes were executed by Qing Imperials in Jinling Town (金陵城), Nanjing.
Although the fall of Nanjing marked the destruction of the Taiping regime, the fight was not yet over. There were still several hundred thousands to Taiping rebel troops continuing the fight, with more than a quarter of a million Tiaping rebels fighting in the border regions of Jiangxi and Fujian alone. It would taken more than half a decade after the capture of the rebel capital Nanjing for Qing Dynasty and its Imperial Chinese army to finally put down the Taiping Rebellion: it was only in August, 1871, when the last Taiping rebel army led by Shi Dakai's commander, General Li Fuzhong (李福忠) was completely wiped out by the governmental forces in the border region of Hunan, Guizhou and Guangxi, did the Taiping Rebellion finally cease to formally exist.
The Nian Rebellion (捻軍起義) (1853–1868), and several Muslim rebellions in the southwest (Panthay Rebellion, 1855–1873) and the northwest (Hui Rebellion in Gansu and Shaanxi, 1862–1877) were led by the remnants of the Taiping rebels.

Taiping Heavenly Army

The rebellion's army was its key strength. It was marked by a high level of discipline and fanaticism. They typically wore a uniform of red jackets with blue trousers and grew their hair long — in Chinese they were known as ''Chángmáo'' (長毛, meaning "long hair"). The large numbers of women serving in the Taiping Heavenly Army also distinguished it from 19th century armies.
Combat was always bloody and extremely brutal, with little artillery but huge forces equipped with small arms. By 1856, the Taiping armies numbered just over 1 million. Their main strategy of conquest was to take major cities, consolidate their hold on the cities, then march out into the surrounding countryside to battle Imperial forces. Estimates of the overall size of the Taiping Heavenly Army varied from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000.
The organization of a Taiping army corps was thus:

★ 1 general

★ 5 colonels

★ 25 captains

★ 125 lieutenants

★ 500 sergeants

★ 2,500 corporals

★ 10,000 privates

★ 13,156 men in total
These corps were placed into armies of varying sizes. In addition to the main Taiping forces organised along the above lines, there were also thousands of pro-Taiping groups fielding their own forces of irregulars.

Ethnic structure of the army

Ethnically, the Taiping Heavenly army was formed at the outset largely from two groups: the Hakka, a Hàn Chinese sub-group (客家 pinyin: kèjiā, literally “guest families” or “guest households”), and the Zhuàng (a non-Han ethnic group), both of which were minority peoples as compared to the Hàn Chinese sub-groups that form dominant regional majorities across south China. It is no coincidence that Hóng Xiùquán and the other Taiping royals were Hakka. As a Hàn sub-group, the Hakka were frequently marginalized economically and politically, having migrated to the regions they inhabit only after other Hàn groups were already established there. For example, when the Hakka settled in Guǎngdōng and parts of Guǎngxī, speakers of Cantonese (粵/粤) were already the dominant regional Hàn group there and had been for some time, just as speakers of various dialects of Mín (閩/闽) are locally dominant in Fújiàn province. The Hakka settled throughout South China and beyond, but as latecomers they generally had to establish their communities on rugged, less fertile land scattered on the fringe of the local majority group’s settlements. As their name (“guest households”) suggests, the Hakka were generally treated as migrant newcomers, often subject to hostility and derision from local majority Hàn populations. Consequently, the Hakka, to a greater extent than other Hàn Chinese, have been historically associated with popular unrest and rebellion.
The other significant ethnic group in the Taiping army were the Zhuàng (Simplified Chinese: 壮族; pinyin: Zhuàngzú), an indigenous people of Tai origin and China’s largest non-Han ethnic minority group. Over the centuries Zhuàng communities had been adopting Hàn Chinese culture. This was possible because, given the linguistic complexity of south China, where many of the dialects of Han Chinese are not mutually intelligible, Hàn culture in the region accommodates a great deal of linguistic diversity, so the Zhuàng could be absorbed as if the Zhuàng language were just another Hàn Chinese dialect (which it is not). As Zhuàng communities were integrating with the Hàn at different rates, a certain amount of friction between Hàn and Zhuàng was inevitable, with Zhuàng unrest on occasion leading to armed uprisings.^[5] The second tier of the Taiping army was an ethnic mix that included many Zhuàng. Prominent at this level was Shí Dákāi (石達開 / 石达开), who was half-Hakka, half-Zhuàng and spoke both languages fluently, making him quite a rare asset to the Taiping leadership.
In the later stages of the Taiping rebellion, the number of Hàn Chinese in the army from Hàn groups other than the Hakka increased substantially. However, the Hakka and the Zhuàng (who constituted as much as 25% of the Taiping army), as well as other non-Hàn ethnic minority groups (many of them of Tai origin related to the Zhuàng ), continued to feature prominently in the rebellion throughout its duration, with virtually no leaders emerging from any Hàn Chinese group other than the Hakka.

Social structure of the army

Socially and economically, the Taipings came almost exclusively from the lowest classes. Many of the southern Taiping troops were former miners, especially those coming from the Zhuang. Very few Taipings, even in the leadership caste, came from the imperial bureaucracy. Almost none were landlords and in occupied territories landlords were often executed. In this sense the Taiping army was a prototype for the People's Liberation Army of the twentieth century.

Imperial Army

Opposing these forces was an imperial army with a size of 2 million to 5 million regulars along with hundreds of thousands of regional militias and foreign mercenaries operating in support. Among the imperial forces was the elite Ever Victorious Army, consisting of Chinese soldiers led by a European officer corps (see Frederick Townsend Ward and Charles Gordon). A particularly famous imperial force was the Xiang Army of Zeng Guofan.
Although keeping accurate records was something Imperial China traditionally did very well, the decentralized nature of the Imperial war effort (relying on regional forces) and the fact that the war was a civil war and therefore very chaotic meant that reliable figures are impossible to find. The destruction of the Heavenly Kingdom also meant that any records it possessed were destroyed.

The Heavenly Kingdom's policies

Within the land that they controlled, the Taiping Heavenly Army established a theocratic and highly militarised rule.

★ The subject of study for the examinations for officials (formerly civil service exams) changed from the Confucian classics to the Christian Bible.

★ Private property ownership was abolished and all land was held and distributed by the state.

★ A solar calendar replaced the lunar calendar.

★ The society was declared classless and the sexes were declared equal. It was the first Chinese regime ever to admit women into examinations.

★ Foot binding was banned.

★ Monogamy was promoted.

★ Other new laws were promulgated including the prohibition of opium, gambling, tobacco, alcohol, polygamy (including concubinage), slavery, and prostitution.
However, the rule was remarkably ineffective, haphazard and brutal; all efforts were concentrated on the army, and civil administration was very poor. Rule was established in the major cities but the land outside the urban areas was little regarded. Even though polygamy was banned, it was believed that Hong Xiuquan had 88 concubines. Many high-ranking Taiping officials kept concubines as a matter of prerogative, and lived as de facto kings.

Theology

Although ostensibly Christian, the "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace" has long been considered heretical by major branches of Christianity.
The movement's founder, Hong Xiuquan, had tried and failed to earn his ''shengyuan'' civil service degree numerous times. After one such failure, Hong overheard a Chinese Protestant missionary preaching and took home some Bible tracts, including a pamphlet titled "Good Words for Exhorting the Age." Then, in 1843, after his final failure, he had what some regard as a nervous breakdown and others as a mystical revelation, connecting his in-depth readings of the Christian tracts to strange dreams he had been having for the past six years. In his dreams, a bearded man with golden hair gave him a sword, and, with a younger man Hong addressed as "Elder Brother," taught him how to slay evil spirits (Spence 1999, 172).
Based on his readings, Hong Xiuquan came to believe that the figures in his dreams were God the Father and Jesus Christ and that they were revealing his destiny as a slayer of demons and the leader of a new Heavenly Kingdom on Earth^[6].
Hong developed a literalist understanding of the Bible, which soon gave rise to a unique theology. He rejected the doctrine of the Trinity -- only the Father was truly God. Jesus Christ was the Father's firstborn Son, with Hong Xiuquan himself being the Father's second Son and the younger brother of Jesus. It was said that when foreign missionaries later explained to Hong Xiuquan that Jesus was the Father's ''only'' Son, he simply crossed out the word "only". The Holy Spirit, for Hong, was nothing more than a "Holy Wind" (a belief based on the poor translation skills of Christian missionaries; the Latin root ''spirit-'' is literally ''breath''); in fact, Yang Xiuqing later took the title "Holy Wind the Comforter", as he had become the Taiping leader who had most of the political power during the rebellion and was keen to gain titles. Yang Xiuqing's religious motivations are disputed.
Based on his readings and personal revelations, Hong Xiuquan added a third group of books (in addition to the Old Testament and the New Testament) to the Taiping regime's Bible.

Currency

In its first year, the Heavenly Kingdom minted coins that were 23 mm to 26 mm and around 4.1 g. The inscription 太平天囯 ("The Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace") was on the front, where "Kingdom" was written in a non-standard form of the character (囯, instead of 國/国), and 聖寶 ("Holy Treasure") on the back.

Administration

Miniature of the palace of heavenly kingdom

Ranked below the King of Heaven (天王), Hong Xiuquan (洪秀全), the territory was divided among provincial rulers called kings or princes, initially there were five — the Kings of the Four Quarters and the King of the Yi (meaning flanks). Of the original rulers, the West King and South King were killed in combat in 1852. The East King was murdered by the North King during a coup d'etat in 1856, and the North King himself was subsequently killed. The kings' names were:

★ South King (南王), Feng Yunshan (馮雲山) (–1852)

★ East King (東王), Yang Xiuqing (楊秀清) (–1856)

★ West King (西王), Xiao Chaogui (蕭朝貴) (–1852)

★ North King (北王), Wei Changhui (韋昌輝) (–1856)

★ Yi King (翼王), Shi Dakai (石達開) (captured and executed by Qing Imperials in 1863)
The later leaders of the movement were 'Princes':

★ Zhong Prince (忠王), Li Xiucheng (李秀成) (1823–1864, captured and executed by Qing Imperials)

★ Ying Prince (英王), Chen Yucheng (陳玉成) (1837–1862)

★ Gan Prince (干王), Hong Rengan (洪仁玕 Hóng Rēngān) (1822–1864, executed), cousin of Hong Xiuquan

★ Fu Prince (福王), Hong Renda (洪仁達) (executed by Qing Imperials in 1864), Hong Xiuquan's second eldest brother

★ Tian Gui (Tien Kuei) (田貴?) (–1864, executed)
Other princes include:

★ An Prince (安王), Hong Renfa (洪仁發), Hong Xiuquan's eldest brother

★ Yong Prince (勇王), Hong Rengui (洪仁貴)

★ Fu Prince (福王), Hong Renfu (洪仁富)

Taiping Rebellion in popular culture

★ Both China's CCTV and Hong Kong's ATV made historical dramas about the Taiping Rebellion. The series on CCTV ran for 50 episodes.

★ A strategy computer game based on the Taiping Rebellion has been made in China, and is primarily available in mainland China and Taiwan. The player can play as either the Qing government or the Taiping Rebels.

★ Robert Carter's historical novel "Barbarians" (Orion, 1998) ISBN: 0-75281-339-0, deals in detail with the rebellion and the politics surrounding it.

★ Taiping society — in some sources, the Heavenly King himself, is given credit for developing the popular Chinese game of Mahjong.

★ ''Flashman and the Dragon'' (1986) — A portion of the memoirs of the fictional Harry Paget Flashman recounting his adventures during the Anglo-Chinese Second Opium War and Taiping Rebellion.

★ The Consumer Goods' song "Taiping Riverboat" from their 2006 album "Pop Goes the Pigdog!" tells of the construction of Nanjing and the subsequent defense of the Heavenly Kingdom through a first-person narrative.

References

1. Userserols. "Userserols." ''Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century.'' Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
2. Shangri-la-river. "Shangri-la-river." ''The Bridge section.'' Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
3. Afe.easia. "Columbia.edu." "China's Population Growth throughout history." Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
4. John King Fairbank, The Great Chinese Revolution 1800-1985 (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), 81.
5. The Languages of China, , Robert, S., Ramsey, Princeton University Press, , ISBN 0-691-06694-9
6. Wsu.edu. "Wsu.edu." ''Taiping Rebellion.'' Retrieved on 2007-04-11.

Bibliography

★ Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China''. New York: Norton, 1999.

Personal Name	Period of Reign	Era Names "Nian Hao 年號" (and their according range of years)
Hong Xiuquan – 洪秀全	August 1851 – May 1864	Yannian (元年 Yuánnián) 1851–1864
Hong Tianguifu – 洪天貴福	May 1864 – August 1864	None

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TAIPING REBELLION

Background

Climax

Downfall

Taiping Heavenly Army

Ethnic structure of the army

Social structure of the army

Imperial Army

The Heavenly Kingdom's policies

Theology

Currency

Administration

Further reading

Taiping Rebellion in popular culture

References

Bibliography

See also

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