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(Redirected from Takshashila University)
:''For the genus of metalmark butterflies, see ''Taxila (butterfly).
'Taxila' (, , Pali:''Takkasilā'') is an important archaeological site in Pakistan containing the ruins of the Gandhāran city of 'Takshashila' (also 'Takkasila' or 'Taxila') an important Vedic/Hindu[1] and Buddhist[2] centre of learning from the 6th century BCE[3]
to the 5th century CE."Nalanda" (2007). ''Encarta''.
Joseph Needham (2004), ''Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West'', Routledge, ISBN 0415361664:
In 1980, Taxila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site with multiple locations.[4]
Historically, Taxila lay at the crossroads of three major trade routes: the royal highway from Pāaliputra; the north-western route through Bactria, Kāpiśa, and Pukalāvatī (Peshawar); and the route from Kashmir and Central Asia, via Śrinigar, Mānsehrā, and the Haripur valley[5] across the Khunjerab pass to the Silk Road.
Today, Taxila is situated at the western region of the Islamabad Capital Territory—to the northwest of Rawalpindi and on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier Provinces—about 30 kilometres west-northwest of Islamabad, just off the Grand Trunk Road.
Legend has it that Taksha, an ancient Indian king who ruled in a kingdom called Taksha Khanda (Tashkent) founded the city of Takshashila. The word Takshashila, in Sanskrit means "belonging to the King Taksha". Taksha was the son of Bharata and Mandavi, historical characters who appear in the Indian epic Ramayana.
In the Indian epic ''Mahābhārata'', the Kuru heir Parikit was enthroned at Taxila.[6]
Ahmad Hasan Dani and Saifur Rahman Dar trace the etymology of Taxila to a tribe called the Takka.[7] According to Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, "Taxila" is related to "Takaka," which means "carpenter" and is an alternative name for the Nāga.[8]
★ ''c''. 518 BCE[9] – Darius the Great annexes the North-West of the Indian-Subcontinent (modern day Pakistan), including Taxila, to the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[10]
★ ''c''. 450 BCE, Herodotus makes reference to Greek influences in this area. The language used in the area is bilingual for the better part of a 1000 years, with Greek being the second language. See coins that reflect this bilingual function.
★ 326 BCE[10] – Alexander the Great receives submission of Āmbhi,[12] king of Taxila, and afterwards defeats Porus at the Jhelum River.[10]
★ ''c''. 317 BCE – In quick succession, Alexander's general Eudemus and then the satrap Peithon withdraw from India.[14] Candragupta, founder of the Mauryan empire, then makes himself master of the Punjab. Chandragupta Maurya's advisor Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) was a teacher at Taxila.
★ During the reign of Chandragupta's grandson Aśoka, Taxila became a great Buddhist centre of learning. Nonetheless, Taxila was briefly the center of a minor local rebellion, subdued only a few years after its onset.[15]
★ 185 BCE[16] – The last Maurya emperor, Bhadratha, is assassinated by his general, Puyamitra Śunga, during a parade of his troops.[17]
★ 183 BCE[18] – Demetrios conquers Gandhāra, the Punjab and the Indus valley.[10] He builds his new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila.[18] During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, managed independently and controlled by several local trade guilds, who also minted most of the city's autonomous coinage.
★ ''c''. 90 BCE[21] – The Indo-Scythian chief Maues overthrows the last Greek king of Taxila.[21]
★ ''c''. 25 CE[23] – Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, conquers Taxila and makes it his capital.[23].
★ 76[25] – The date of and inscription found at Taxila of 'Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, the Kushana' (''maharaja rajatiraja devaputra Kushana'').[25]
★ ''c''. 460–470[27] – The Ephthalites sweep over Gandhāra and the Punjab; wholesale destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stūpas at Taxila, which never again recovers.[27]
Before the fall of these invader-kings, Taxila had been variously a capital for many dynasties, and a centre of Vedic and Buddhist learning, with a population of Buddhists, Classical Hindus, and possibly Greeks that may have endured for centuries.[29]
The British archaeologist Sir John Marshall conducted
excavations over a period of twenty years in Taxila.[30]
Takshashila was an early center of learning dating back to at least the 5th century BCE.Hartmut Scharfe (2002). ''Education in Ancient India''. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-12556-6.
There is some disagreement about whether Takshashila can be considered a university. While some consider Taxila to be an early university
[31]
[32]
[33]
or centre of higher education,
[34]
others do not consider it a university in the modern sense,
[35]
[36]
[37]
in contrast to the later Nalanda University.[38]
Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century CE.[39]
Takshashila is considered a place of religious and historical sanctity by Hindus and Buddhists. The former do so not only because, in its time, Takshashila was the seat of Vedic learning, but also because the strategist, Chanakya, who later helped consolidate the empire of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, was a senior teacher there. The institution is very significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the Mahāyāna sect of Buddhism took shape there.
Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BCE or 7th century BCE.[40] It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries before Christ, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century CE. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya),[41] the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta[42] and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila.Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989). ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 478-489). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804236.
Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.
Present day Taxila is one of the seven Tehsils (sub-district) of Rawalpindi District. It is spread over an undulating land in the periphery of the Pothohar Plateau of the Punjab. Situated just outside the capital Islamabad's territory and communicating with it through Tarnol pass of Margalla Hills, Taxila is a mix of posh urban and rustic rural environs. Urban residential areas are in the form of small neat and clean colonies populated by the workers of heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area.
The industries include heavy machine factories and industrial complex, ordnance factories of Wah Cantt and cement factory. Heavy Industries Taxila is also based here. Small, cottage and house hold industries include stone ware, pottery and foot wear. People try to relate the present day stone ware craft to the tradition of sculpture making that existed here before the advent of Islam.
In addition to the ruins of Gandhara civilization and ancient Buddhist/Hindu culture, relics of Mughal gardens and vestiges of historical Grand Trunk Road, which was built by Emperor Sher Shah Suri in 15th-16th centuries, are also found in Taxila region.
Taxila Museum, dedicated mainly to the remains of Gandhara civilization, is also worth visiting. A hotel of the tourism department offers reasonably good services and hospitality to the tourists.
Taxila has many educational institutes including University of Engineering and Technology (UET).
Thomas is still honored in Taxila in an annual festival in early July, attended by thousands, celebrating the passage of his bones through Taxila on their way to Edessa.
Some notable and famous people of Taxila are Khan Mohammad Younas Khan, Ghulam Sarwar Khan (minister for labour & Overseas Pakistanis) and Siddique Khan (town nazim).
1. An Advanced History of India, , , Majumdar, Raychauduri and Datta, Macmillan, ,
2. UNESCO World Heritage List. 1980. Taxila: Brief Description. Retrieved 13 January 2007
3. "History of Education", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.
4. UNESCO World Heritage Site. 1980. Taxila: Multiple Locations. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
5. Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, , Romila, Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-19-563932-4
6. An Introduction to the study of Indian History, , Damodar Dharmanand, Kosambi, Popular Prakashan, 1975,
7. Scharfe 2002
8. Kosambi 1975:129
9. Taxila: Volume I, , John, Marshall, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975,
10. Marshall 1975:83
11. Marshall 1975:83
12. Named "Taxiles" by Greek sources after his capital city.
13. Marshall 1975:83
14. Peithon was named by Alexander satrap of Sindh, and was again confirmed to the Gandhara region by the Treaty of Triparadisus in 320 BCE: "The country of the Parapamisians was bestowed upon Oxyartes, the father of Roxane; and the skirts of India adjacent to Mount Parapamisus, on Peithon the son of Agenor. As to the countries beyond that, those on the river Indus, with the city Patala (the capital of that part of India) were assigned to Porus. Those upon the Hydaspes, to Taxiles the Indian." Arrian "Anabasis, the Events after Alexander". He ultimately left in 316 BCE, to become satrap of Babylon in 315 BCE, before dying at the Battle of Gaza in 312 BCE
15. Thapar 1997
16. A History of India, , Hermann, Kulke, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-415-15481-2
17. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:68
18. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:70
19. Marshall 1975:83
20. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:70
21. Marshall 1975:84
22. Marshall 1975:84
23. Marshall 1975:85
24. Marshall 1975:85
25. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:75
26. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:75
27. Marshall 1975:86
28. Marshall 1975:86
29. The ''Life of Apollonius Tyana'' demonstrates that the rulers of Taxila spoke Greek several centuries after Greek political dominance had faded.
30. A Guide to Taxila, , Sir John, Marshall, Department of Archaeology in Pakistan, Sani Communications, 1960,
31. Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989), ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 478), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 8120804236:
32. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund (2004), ''A History of India'', Routledge, ISBN 0415329191:
33. Balakrishnan Muniapan, Junaid M. Shaikh (2007), "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's Arthashastra in ancient India", ''World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development'' '3' (1):
34. Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989), ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 479), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 8120804236:
35. Anant Sadashiv Altekar (1934; reprint 1965), ''Education in Ancient India'', Sixth Edition, Revised & Enlarged, Nand Kishore & Bros, Varanasi:
36. F. W. Thomas (1944), in John Marshall (1951; 1975 reprint), ''Taxila'', Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi:
37. Taxila (2007), Encyclopædia Britannica:
38. "Nalanda" (2001). ''Columbia Encyclopedia''.
39. Marshall 1975:81
40. "Taxila", ''Columbia Encyclopedia'', 2001.
41. Kautilya. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
42. Radhakumud Mookerji (1941; 1960; reprint 1989). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'' (p. 17). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804058.
★ Heavy Industries Taxila
★ Sirkap
★ Ancient Universities of India
★ Taxila under the Achaemenids
★ ''Guide to Historic Taxila'' by Professor Dr. Ahmad Hasan Dani in 10 chapters
★ "Taxila", by Jona Lendering
★ Some photos by Umayr Sahlan Masud
★ Taxila page from punjab-info
★ Travel With Young - Taxila 한글
★ Map of Gandhara archeological sites, from the Huntington Collection, Ohio State University (large file)
★ "Taxila Museum and Jaulian Monastery", by Saadullah Bashir
:''For the genus of metalmark butterflies, see ''Taxila (butterfly).
'Taxila' (, , Pali:''Takkasilā'') is an important archaeological site in Pakistan containing the ruins of the Gandhāran city of 'Takshashila' (also 'Takkasila' or 'Taxila') an important Vedic/Hindu[1] and Buddhist[2] centre of learning from the 6th century BCE[3]
to the 5th century CE."Nalanda" (2007). ''Encarta''.
Joseph Needham (2004), ''Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West'', Routledge, ISBN 0415361664:
In 1980, Taxila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site with multiple locations.[4]
Historically, Taxila lay at the crossroads of three major trade routes: the royal highway from Pāaliputra; the north-western route through Bactria, Kāpiśa, and Pukalāvatī (Peshawar); and the route from Kashmir and Central Asia, via Śrinigar, Mānsehrā, and the Haripur valley[5] across the Khunjerab pass to the Silk Road.
Today, Taxila is situated at the western region of the Islamabad Capital Territory—to the northwest of Rawalpindi and on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier Provinces—about 30 kilometres west-northwest of Islamabad, just off the Grand Trunk Road.
| Contents |
| History |
| Ancient centre of learning |
| Taxila today |
| References |
| See also |
| External links |
History
Taxila is in western Punjab, and was an important city during Alexander's campaign in India.
A coin from 2nd century BCE Taxila.
The Indo-Greek king Antialcidas ruled in Taxila around 100 BCE, according to the Heliodorus pillar inscription.
Jaulian, a World Heritage Site at Taxila.
Jaulian silver Buddhist reliquary, with content. British Museum.
Legend has it that Taksha, an ancient Indian king who ruled in a kingdom called Taksha Khanda (Tashkent) founded the city of Takshashila. The word Takshashila, in Sanskrit means "belonging to the King Taksha". Taksha was the son of Bharata and Mandavi, historical characters who appear in the Indian epic Ramayana.
In the Indian epic ''Mahābhārata'', the Kuru heir Parikit was enthroned at Taxila.[6]
Ahmad Hasan Dani and Saifur Rahman Dar trace the etymology of Taxila to a tribe called the Takka.[7] According to Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, "Taxila" is related to "Takaka," which means "carpenter" and is an alternative name for the Nāga.[8]
★ ''c''. 518 BCE[9] – Darius the Great annexes the North-West of the Indian-Subcontinent (modern day Pakistan), including Taxila, to the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[10]
★ ''c''. 450 BCE, Herodotus makes reference to Greek influences in this area. The language used in the area is bilingual for the better part of a 1000 years, with Greek being the second language. See coins that reflect this bilingual function.
★ 326 BCE[10] – Alexander the Great receives submission of Āmbhi,[12] king of Taxila, and afterwards defeats Porus at the Jhelum River.[10]
★ ''c''. 317 BCE – In quick succession, Alexander's general Eudemus and then the satrap Peithon withdraw from India.[14] Candragupta, founder of the Mauryan empire, then makes himself master of the Punjab. Chandragupta Maurya's advisor Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) was a teacher at Taxila.
★ During the reign of Chandragupta's grandson Aśoka, Taxila became a great Buddhist centre of learning. Nonetheless, Taxila was briefly the center of a minor local rebellion, subdued only a few years after its onset.[15]
★ 185 BCE[16] – The last Maurya emperor, Bhadratha, is assassinated by his general, Puyamitra Śunga, during a parade of his troops.[17]
★ 183 BCE[18] – Demetrios conquers Gandhāra, the Punjab and the Indus valley.[10] He builds his new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila.[18] During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, managed independently and controlled by several local trade guilds, who also minted most of the city's autonomous coinage.
★ ''c''. 90 BCE[21] – The Indo-Scythian chief Maues overthrows the last Greek king of Taxila.[21]
★ ''c''. 25 CE[23] – Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, conquers Taxila and makes it his capital.[23].
★ 76[25] – The date of and inscription found at Taxila of 'Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, the Kushana' (''maharaja rajatiraja devaputra Kushana'').[25]
★ ''c''. 460–470[27] – The Ephthalites sweep over Gandhāra and the Punjab; wholesale destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stūpas at Taxila, which never again recovers.[27]
Before the fall of these invader-kings, Taxila had been variously a capital for many dynasties, and a centre of Vedic and Buddhist learning, with a population of Buddhists, Classical Hindus, and possibly Greeks that may have endured for centuries.[29]
The British archaeologist Sir John Marshall conducted
excavations over a period of twenty years in Taxila.[30]
Ancient centre of learning
The Dharmarajika stupa, Taxila.
Takshashila was an early center of learning dating back to at least the 5th century BCE.Hartmut Scharfe (2002). ''Education in Ancient India''. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-12556-6.
There is some disagreement about whether Takshashila can be considered a university. While some consider Taxila to be an early university
[31]
[32]
[33]
or centre of higher education,
[34]
others do not consider it a university in the modern sense,
[35]
[36]
[37]
in contrast to the later Nalanda University.[38]
Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century CE.[39]
Stupa base at Sirkap, decorated with Hindu, Buddhist, and Greek temple fronts.
Takshashila is considered a place of religious and historical sanctity by Hindus and Buddhists. The former do so not only because, in its time, Takshashila was the seat of Vedic learning, but also because the strategist, Chanakya, who later helped consolidate the empire of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, was a senior teacher there. The institution is very significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the Mahāyāna sect of Buddhism took shape there.
Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BCE or 7th century BCE.[40] It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries before Christ, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century CE. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya),[41] the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta[42] and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila.Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989). ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 478-489). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804236.
Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.
Taxila today
Present day Taxila is one of the seven Tehsils (sub-district) of Rawalpindi District. It is spread over an undulating land in the periphery of the Pothohar Plateau of the Punjab. Situated just outside the capital Islamabad's territory and communicating with it through Tarnol pass of Margalla Hills, Taxila is a mix of posh urban and rustic rural environs. Urban residential areas are in the form of small neat and clean colonies populated by the workers of heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area.
The industries include heavy machine factories and industrial complex, ordnance factories of Wah Cantt and cement factory. Heavy Industries Taxila is also based here. Small, cottage and house hold industries include stone ware, pottery and foot wear. People try to relate the present day stone ware craft to the tradition of sculpture making that existed here before the advent of Islam.
In addition to the ruins of Gandhara civilization and ancient Buddhist/Hindu culture, relics of Mughal gardens and vestiges of historical Grand Trunk Road, which was built by Emperor Sher Shah Suri in 15th-16th centuries, are also found in Taxila region.
Taxila Museum, dedicated mainly to the remains of Gandhara civilization, is also worth visiting. A hotel of the tourism department offers reasonably good services and hospitality to the tourists.
Taxila has many educational institutes including University of Engineering and Technology (UET).
Thomas is still honored in Taxila in an annual festival in early July, attended by thousands, celebrating the passage of his bones through Taxila on their way to Edessa.
Some notable and famous people of Taxila are Khan Mohammad Younas Khan, Ghulam Sarwar Khan (minister for labour & Overseas Pakistanis) and Siddique Khan (town nazim).
References
A Taxila coin, 200-100 BCE. British Museum.
1. An Advanced History of India, , , Majumdar, Raychauduri and Datta, Macmillan, ,
2. UNESCO World Heritage List. 1980. Taxila: Brief Description. Retrieved 13 January 2007
3. "History of Education", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.
4. UNESCO World Heritage Site. 1980. Taxila: Multiple Locations. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
5. Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, , Romila, Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-19-563932-4
6. An Introduction to the study of Indian History, , Damodar Dharmanand, Kosambi, Popular Prakashan, 1975,
7. Scharfe 2002
8. Kosambi 1975:129
9. Taxila: Volume I, , John, Marshall, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975,
10. Marshall 1975:83
11. Marshall 1975:83
12. Named "Taxiles" by Greek sources after his capital city.
13. Marshall 1975:83
14. Peithon was named by Alexander satrap of Sindh, and was again confirmed to the Gandhara region by the Treaty of Triparadisus in 320 BCE: "The country of the Parapamisians was bestowed upon Oxyartes, the father of Roxane; and the skirts of India adjacent to Mount Parapamisus, on Peithon the son of Agenor. As to the countries beyond that, those on the river Indus, with the city Patala (the capital of that part of India) were assigned to Porus. Those upon the Hydaspes, to Taxiles the Indian." Arrian "Anabasis, the Events after Alexander". He ultimately left in 316 BCE, to become satrap of Babylon in 315 BCE, before dying at the Battle of Gaza in 312 BCE
15. Thapar 1997
16. A History of India, , Hermann, Kulke, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-415-15481-2
17. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:68
18. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:70
19. Marshall 1975:83
20. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:70
21. Marshall 1975:84
22. Marshall 1975:84
23. Marshall 1975:85
24. Marshall 1975:85
25. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:75
26. Kulke and Rothermund 1998:75
27. Marshall 1975:86
28. Marshall 1975:86
29. The ''Life of Apollonius Tyana'' demonstrates that the rulers of Taxila spoke Greek several centuries after Greek political dominance had faded.
30. A Guide to Taxila, , Sir John, Marshall, Department of Archaeology in Pakistan, Sani Communications, 1960,
31. Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989), ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 478), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 8120804236:
32. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund (2004), ''A History of India'', Routledge, ISBN 0415329191:
33. Balakrishnan Muniapan, Junaid M. Shaikh (2007), "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's Arthashastra in ancient India", ''World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development'' '3' (1):
34. Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989), ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 479), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 8120804236:
35. Anant Sadashiv Altekar (1934; reprint 1965), ''Education in Ancient India'', Sixth Edition, Revised & Enlarged, Nand Kishore & Bros, Varanasi:
36. F. W. Thomas (1944), in John Marshall (1951; 1975 reprint), ''Taxila'', Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi:
37. Taxila (2007), Encyclopædia Britannica:
38. "Nalanda" (2001). ''Columbia Encyclopedia''.
39. Marshall 1975:81
40. "Taxila", ''Columbia Encyclopedia'', 2001.
41. Kautilya. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
42. Radhakumud Mookerji (1941; 1960; reprint 1989). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'' (p. 17). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804058.
See also
★ Heavy Industries Taxila
★ Sirkap
★ Ancient Universities of India
★ Taxila under the Achaemenids
External links
★ ''Guide to Historic Taxila'' by Professor Dr. Ahmad Hasan Dani in 10 chapters
★ "Taxila", by Jona Lendering
★ Some photos by Umayr Sahlan Masud
★ Taxila page from punjab-info
★ Travel With Young - Taxila 한글
★ Map of Gandhara archeological sites, from the Huntington Collection, Ohio State University (large file)
★ "Taxila Museum and Jaulian Monastery", by Saadullah Bashir
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