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(Redirected from Tipitaka)
The 'Pali Canon' is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language.[1] The Canon was written down from oral tradition at the occasion of the Fourth Buddhist Council(in the usual Theravada numbering), 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka[2] on ola (palm) leaves.[3] Passed down in writing and to other Theravadin countries, this Ceylonese Canon is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down.[4]
The Canon was not printed until the nineteenth century, but is now available in electronic form. (The English translation by the Pali Text Society is not yet complete;[1] however, most of the Canon has been translated.[5])
The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called ''pitaka'' (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the 'Tipitaka' (Tipiṭaka; ''three baskets'').The three pitakas are as follows.
[6]
# Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
# Sutta Pitaka, discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
# Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc.
Dr Rupert Gethin says that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.[7]
The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.[8]
The traditional interpretation is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or fifth century AD) and his followers, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost, subcommentaries on most of these and sometimes even further layers. It is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.[9]
An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:[10] the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.[11]
Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. A standard collection of frequently recited texts is the Paritta or Catubhanavara. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering).[12] Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.[13]
According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. There are wide differences of opinion among scholars on to what extent the teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself.[8]
According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini () (1st century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,[15] though Schopen questions this.[16]
It has generally been accepted that the Pali Canon contains information about the early history of Indian Buddhism, from the time of the Buddha (c.484-404 B.C.) until the end of the first century B.C.[17] Thus the Pāli canon shows ‘no certain evidence for any substantial Sinhalese additions after its arrival in Sri Lanka[18][19]. Since the language it is composed in is North Indian in origin, it is likely that the Canon was composed somewhere in North India before its introduction to Sri Lanka, and is thus a source for North Indian Buddhism before it's introduction to Sri Lanka[20]. Since Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in 250 BC[21], much of the material in the Pali Canon, especially the Sutta and Vinaya portions is older than 250 BC, or perhaps even more than 100 years older than this[22].
The opinion of individual scholars, however, differs:
Dr Richard Gombrich[23], thinks[24] that the content, as opposed to the form, of large parts of the Canon goes back to the Buddha himself. Alexander Wynne gives some of the reasoning behind this opinion:
:''If we remind ourselves of Norman’s point that the Pali canon contains no definite evidence for a substantial amount of Sinhalese prakrit (see above p.1), it seems quite clear that after the Tipitaka was written down in the first century B.C., it was not substantially altered, at least in content, and as such, it must have been very similar to the extant Pali Canon. This means that the Suttapitaka in existence today can be taken as an accurate record of Buddhist thought from the time of the Buddha (c. 484-404 B.C.) until the first century B.C. at the latest[25].''
Dr Gregory Schopen[26] holds a minority position, arguing[27] that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries C.E. that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. Schopen claims to have based his research on archaeological evidence only, since the textual information found in the Pali Canon is, according to him, too unreliable because no old hard copies (on paper) are available which date from before 4th century AD.
Alexander Wynne[28] and Bhikkhu Sujato[29] wrote detailed critiques of Schopen's position, saying that Schopen's approach is unbalanced[30]. They claim that the texts, contrary to Schopens' opinions, are indispensible, but that one should use them in tandem with the material evidence[31], and that Schopen makes generalisations about Indian Buddhism based on a very small amount of evidence, considering only the works of a few rich monks in ancient India who had the means to make large offerings in which they made inscriptions, disregarding the many ordinairy monks who lived simple lives[32]. Wynne and Sujato claim that actual texts carry much more meaningful, complete and detailed information than inscriptions found on such objects like Buddha images and Stupas[33], while the archaeological finds can be used to check the correctness of the information in the texts. They also claim to have found various mistakes in Schopen's research[34]. The position that one cannot know anything about the teachings of the Buddha has been criticized to be one of 'extreme caution'[35].
Likewise, different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works,[36] the Vinaya (excluding the Parivara[37]) and the first four nikayas of the Sutta,[38], and perhaps also some short verse works [39] such as the Suttanipata.[40]However, some scholars, paricularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana.[41]
Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions.[42] On the other hand, some scholars have claimed[43] that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.
It is often stated that the Canon survives complete. However, in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Burmese, Sinhalese and Thai editions all have footnotes stating that a sutta[44] mentioned in the commentary is not found in the text. The Burmese and Sinhalese editions give it a heading and number, with no text following (the Thai edition does not use headings and numbers for suttas in this part of the Canon).
The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[45] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[46]
The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes.[47] The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.
★ Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also available separately (website)
★ Thai edition, 1925–8, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings[48]; electronic transcript by budsir: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment
★ Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–6, 40 volumes; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with fewer variant readings[49]; electronic transcript by Vipassana Research Institute available online in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the Institute; another transcript of this edition, produced by the Dhamma Society Fund under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, is expected online soon
★ Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, transcript in Pali Canon Online Database, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread)
No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.[50]
Translation: ''Pali Canon in English Translation'', 1895- , in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Lancaster; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles.
The following including material from at least two pitakas. For more specialized selections see appropriate articles. For broader selections see Buddhist texts and Pali literature.
★ ''Some Sayings of the Buddha'', ed & tr F. L. Woodward, Oxford World Classics, 1924
★ ''The Life of Gotama the Buddha'', ed E. H. Brewster, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1926
★ ''Buddhist Scriptures'', ed & tr E. J. Thomas, Wisdom of the East Series, John Murray, London, 1931
★ ''The Vedantic Buddhism of the Buddha'', ed & tr J. G. Jennings, pub Geoffrey Cumberlege, London, 1947
★ ''The Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha'', ed Ananda K. Coomaraswamy & I. B. Horner, Cassell, London, 1948
★ ''The Lion's Roar'', ed & tr David Maurice, Rider, London, 1962
★ ''The Life of the Buddha'', ed & tr Nanamoli, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1972
As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.
★ Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka)
★ Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka
★ Abhidhamma Pitaka
Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature.[51]
=== Vinaya Pitaka ===
The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the ''sangha'', both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.
★ Suttavibhanga () Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered.
★ Khandhaka Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters.
★ Parivara (parivāra) Analysis of the rules from various points of view.
=== Sutta Pitaka ===
The second category is the ''Sutta Pitaka'' (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: ''Sutra Pitaka'', following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas.
★ Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya) 34 long discourses.[52] Joy Manné argues[53] that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of debates and devotional material.
★ Majjhima Nikaya 152 medium-length discourses.[54] Manné argues[16] that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations.
★ Samyutta Nikaya () Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his translation, says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine.
★ Anguttara Nikaya () Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three.
★ Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. See below.
Khuddaka Nikaya
The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources,[56] contains the following.
★ Khuddakapatha () Nine short texts in prose or verse. This seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for novices.[57] Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon.
★ Dhammapada 423 verses ascribed by tradition to the Buddha in 26 chapters by topic. About half the Pali verses are found elsewhere in the canon. In the Sinhalese tradition, monks have been required to know this book by heart before they can be ordained.[58] In the Burmese examination system, this is one of the texts to be studied in the first stage of the syllabus.[59]
★ Udana (udāna) 80 short passages, mostly verse, ascribed to the Buddha, with introductory stories.
★ Itivuttaka 112 short prose teachings ascribed to the Buddha followed by verse paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from ones to fours.
★ Suttanipata(-nipāta) Poems, some in prose frameworks. In five parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a conclusion, which last includes a little prose.
★ Vimanavatthu (vimāna-) 85 poems telling of celestial mansions resulting from good karma.
★ Petavatthu 51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting from bad karma. It gives prominence to the idea that gifts to monks can benefit one's deceased relatives' ghosts.
★ Theragatha(-gāthā) 264 poems ascribed to early monks, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses.
★ Therigatha (therī-) 73 poems ascribed to early nuns, arranged by increasing number of verses.
★ Jataka (jātaka) 547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous lives,[54] arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Professor Oskar von Hinüber[61] says only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible on their own without the Commentary. As a result of the arrangement, these make up the greater part of the book.[62]
★ Niddesa Commentary on parts of Suttanipata:[54] the last two parts and one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Sariputta.
★ Patisambhidamagga () 30 treatises on various topics. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. Gethin[64] says this book presents the awakening experience as having many different dimensions and aspects, related to the whole of the teaching, and yet as a simple, coherent whole.
★ Apadana (apadāna) About 600 poems, most telling how their authors performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in a number of others.[65]
★ Buddhavamsa () Short verse book, mainly telling of the previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his previous lives.
★ Cariyapitaka (cariyā-) 35 poems telling of Gotama Buddha's practice of 7 of the perfections in his previous lives.
However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical.
The following works are included in the Sixth Council edition of the Canon,[66] including the new transcript from Thailand.[67]
★ Nettipakarana (, or just netti) This book presents methods of interpretation. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
★ Petakopadesa () Presents the same methods as the preceding book. They have a large amount of overlap. The text of this book is very corrupt. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
★ Milindapanha (-pañha or -pañhā) A dialogue between King Menander of Bactria (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena. Rhys Davids describes this as the greatest work of classical Indian prose literature.
The first two of these, but not the third, are included in the Sinhalese (printed) edition. All are omitted from the Thai edition.
Inclusion in printed editions is not the same as canonicity (cf. Apocrypha). Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others as canonical, especially in Burma.[68] About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical.[69] On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not.[70]
=== Abhidhamma Pitaka ===
The third category, the ''Abhidhamma Pitaka '' (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: ''Abhidharma Pitaka''), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
★ Dhammasangani ( or ) Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas
★ Vibhanga () Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani
★ Dhatukatha(dhātukathā) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books
★ Puggalapannatti (-paññatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens
★ Kathavatthu (kathā-)Over 200 debates on points of doctrine
★ Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)
★ Patthana () Analysis of 24 types of condition[71]
The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,[16] Gethin.[73] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions.[74]
The other two main canons in use at the present day are the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Buddhist Canon. The former is in about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and the Dhammapada (the latter confusingly called Udanavarga) and of parts of some other books. The standard modern edition of the latter is the Taisho published in Japan, which is in a hundred much larger volumes. It includes both canonical and non-canonical (including Chinese and Japanese) literature and its arrangement does not clearly distinguish the two. It includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the first four nikayas, the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka and the Milindapanha and of parts of some other books. These Chinese and Tibetan versions are not usually translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but are recognizably the "same" works. On the other hand, the Chinese abhidharma books are different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, though they follow a common methodology.
Looking at things from the other side, the bulk of the Chinese and Tibetan canons consists of Mahayana sutras and tantras, which, apart from a few tantras,[75] have no equivalent in the Pali Canon.
1. Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism'', 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3
2. ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
3. A.K. Warder, ''Indian Buddhism'', 3rd edn, page 307. American Asiatic Association, Asia Society, ''Asia: Journal of the American Asiatic Association'', p724.
4. Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.
5. Bechert & Gombrich, ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 293
6. Gombrich, page 4
7. Gethin, ''Foundations of Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1998, page 43
8. Gombrich, page 20
9. Gombrich, pages 153-4
10. Morgan, ''Path of the Buddha'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956, pages v, 71
11. ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', volume 28 (part 2), page 302
12. Mendelson, ''Sangha and State in Burma'', Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266
13. ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006
14. Gombrich, page 20
15. Harvey, page 3; Warder, ''Path of Discrimination'', Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, ''Path'', page 8
16. loc. cit.
17. According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (29-17 B.C.).1 It has been generally accepted, therefore, that the canon contains information about the early history of Indian Buddhism, from the time of the Buddha (c.484-404 B.C.) until the end of the first century B.C. That the canonical texts are a record of the period of Buddhism before they were written down in Sri Lanka seems to be confirmed by the fact that their language, Pali, is north Indian in origin.
18. ''The Pali Canon shows no definite evidence for a substantial amount of Sinhalese Prakrit, leading to the conclusion that no substantial additions were made to it after it arrived in Sri Lanka.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p.1
19. If we remind ourselves of Norman’s point that the Pali canon contains no definite evidence for a substantial amount of Sinhalese prakrit (see above p.1), it seems quite clear that after the Tipitaka was written down in the first century B.C., it was not substantially altered, at least in content, and as such, it must have been very similar to the extant Pali Canon. This means that the Suttapitaka in existence today can be taken as an accurate record of Buddhist thought from the time of the Buddha (c. 484-404 B.C.) until the first century B.C. at the latest.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p.11
20. ''If the language of the Pali canon is north Indian in origin, and without substantial Sinhalese additions, it is likely that the canon was composed somewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka, and is therefore a source for the period of Buddhism in northern India before this.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, P.1
21. ''This means that much of the material in the Pali Canon, especially the Sutta and Vinaya portions, reached Sri Lanka at around 250 B.C.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p. 28,
22. ''It is therefore possible that much of what is found in the Suttapitaka is earlier than c.250 B.C., perhaps even more than 100 years older than this. If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, P.22
23. Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society
24. pages 20f
25. How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. P.11
26. Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin
27. ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, page 24 (reprinted from ''Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik'', volume 10 (1985))
28. How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. download pdf version from the website of Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
29. A History of Mindfulness, pdf
30. Unfortunately, in his eagerness to point out that the studies of previous generations of Buddhist scholars were one-sided, Schopen has created another one-sided version of history. What is needed is a balanced approach that gives both sets of evidence, the literary and material, their due worth.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. P.6
31. ''The fact is that the texts are indispensable: the literary evidence, even if only normative, and even if it was periodically revised until the rather late redactions, is most certainly a useful record, not as subsidiary to the material evidence, as Schopen believes, but in tandem with it, so that the two sorts of evidence are used equally.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003.P.5
32. ''In other words, there is a tendency in Schopen’s work to make generalisations about Indian Buddhism based on a very small amount of evidence. Even if the generalisations were true in every respect, it would only reveal the historical reality of a tiny part of Indian Buddhism. ... For all we know, the inscriptions might represent only a small minority of the ancient Indian Sangha, the minority who had personal wealth and who could endow Buddhist institutions in different ways.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. p4-5
33. ''This will show that a careful use of textual sources is the only way to know anything about Buddhism in the pre-Asokan period, and will lead to the conclusions that, contrary to what Schopen thinks, some material in the Suttapitaka is historically accurate and extremely old.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. p.22.
34. ''We can conclude that a careful examination of the early Buddhist literature can reveal aspects of the pre-Asokan history of Indian Buddhism. The claim that we cannot know anything about early Indian Buddhism because all the manuscripts are late is vacuous, and made, I assume, by those who have not studied the textual material properly.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. p.29
35. ‘’in the name of that extreme caution which some suppose to be the hallmark of the sound academic, some scholars have claimed that we do not know what the Buddha taught and cannot now find out.’’ AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, preface to 1st edition.
36. A. K. Warder, ''Introduction to Pali'', 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii
37. L. S. Cousins in ''Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa'', ed Dhammapala, Gombrich and Norman, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56
38. ''The World of Buddhism'', ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin, pages 42f
39. Gethin, ''The Buddha's Path to Awakening'', E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992
40. Cousins, loc. cit.
41. Nakamura, ''Indian Buddhism'', Japan, 1980, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 27
42. Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to ''Path of Discrimination'', 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix
43. Cousins, "Pali oral literature", in ''Buddhist Studies'', ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press, London, 1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; ''The Guide'', Pali Text Society, page xxvii
44. Catukka Nipāta, Tatiya Paṇṇāsa(ka), Valāhaka Vagga, sutta 6
45. Hinüber, ''Handbook of Pali Literature'', Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5.
46. [2]
47. Günter Grönbold, ''Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie'', Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete
48. Warder, ''Introduction to Pali'', 1963, PTS, page 382
49. Hamm in ''German Scholars on India'', volume I, ed Cultural Department of the German Embassy in India, pub Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1973, translated from ''Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft'', 1962
50. Cone, ''Dictionary of Pali'', volume I, PTS, 2001
51. Norman, ''Pali Literature'', Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.
52. Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', appendix
53. ''Journal of the Pali Text Society'', volume XV
54. Harvey, appendix
55. loc. cit.
56. Pali Text Society; Norman; Hinüber; Harvey, Appendix; Lamotte, ''History of Indian Buddhism'', 1958, English tr, Oriental Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, 1988
57. Norman, page 58
58. Dhammapada, ed Sumangala, pub Humphrey Milford for the Pali Text Society, London, 1914, page v
59. Mendelson, appendix
60. Harvey, appendix
61. op. cit.
62. This can be verified by inspecting the table of contents of the VRI transcription.
63. Harvey, appendix
64. ''Path'', pages 311f
65. ''JPTS'', volume XX, pages 1-42
66. ''The Guide'', Pali Text Society, 1962, page xii; Hinüber
67. ([3]).
68. ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'', ed Potter, volume VII, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1996
69. ''JPTS'', volume XXVIII, pages 61f
70. Rewata Dhamma, ''The Buddha and His Disciples'', Dhamma-Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 89
71. Harvey, page 83
72. loc. cit.
73. ''Foundations'', page 44
74. "Pali oral literature", page 7
75. Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo, rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong) editions of the Kangyur: Skilling, ''Mahasutras'', volume I, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Lancaster, pages 84n, 553ff, 617ff.
★ Buddhist texts
★ Tripitaka
★ Pali Literature
★ Tripitaka Koreana
★ What-Buddha-Said.net What Buddha said in plain English. Translations & Explanations.
★ The Three Baskets as in the Buddhist Encyclopedia
★ Guide to Tipitaka– Online transcript of a book by Professor U Ko Lay giving a detailed account of the contents of the Burmese edition of the Canon.
★ Access to Insight has many suttas translated into English
★ Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library
★ Most of the Pali Canon in Pali, and much in Sinhala and English of Metta.lk (Sri Lanka)
★ Tipitaka Online of Nibbana.com (Myanmar)
★ Search in English translations of the Tipitaka
★ Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.
★ The Pali Text Society
★ Tipitaka Network
★ Online Pali-English Dictionary
★ The Pali Tipitaka Project
★ Global online recitation service
In addition to Ko Lay's book above, two other books are devoted to detailed accounts of the Canon:
★ ''History of Pali Literature'', B. C. Law, volume I
★ ''Analysis of the Pali Canon'', Russell Webb, Buddist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka
Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon
The 'Pali Canon' is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language.[1] The Canon was written down from oral tradition at the occasion of the Fourth Buddhist Council(in the usual Theravada numbering), 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka[2] on ola (palm) leaves.[3] Passed down in writing and to other Theravadin countries, this Ceylonese Canon is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down.[4]
The Canon was not printed until the nineteenth century, but is now available in electronic form. (The English translation by the Pali Text Society is not yet complete;[1] however, most of the Canon has been translated.[5])
The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called ''pitaka'' (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the 'Tipitaka' (Tipiṭaka; ''three baskets'').The three pitakas are as follows.
[6]
# Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
# Sutta Pitaka, discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
# Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc.
The Canon in the tradition
Dr Rupert Gethin says that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.[7]
The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.[8]
The traditional interpretation is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or fifth century AD) and his followers, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost, subcommentaries on most of these and sometimes even further layers. It is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.[9]
An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:[10] the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.[11]
Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. A standard collection of frequently recited texts is the Paritta or Catubhanavara. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering).[12] Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.[13]
Origins
According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. There are wide differences of opinion among scholars on to what extent the teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself.[8]
According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini () (1st century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,[15] though Schopen questions this.[16]
Opinions of scholars
It has generally been accepted that the Pali Canon contains information about the early history of Indian Buddhism, from the time of the Buddha (c.484-404 B.C.) until the end of the first century B.C.[17] Thus the Pāli canon shows ‘no certain evidence for any substantial Sinhalese additions after its arrival in Sri Lanka[18][19]. Since the language it is composed in is North Indian in origin, it is likely that the Canon was composed somewhere in North India before its introduction to Sri Lanka, and is thus a source for North Indian Buddhism before it's introduction to Sri Lanka[20]. Since Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in 250 BC[21], much of the material in the Pali Canon, especially the Sutta and Vinaya portions is older than 250 BC, or perhaps even more than 100 years older than this[22].
The opinion of individual scholars, however, differs:
The Pali Canon can be traced back to the Buddha
Dr Richard Gombrich[23], thinks[24] that the content, as opposed to the form, of large parts of the Canon goes back to the Buddha himself. Alexander Wynne gives some of the reasoning behind this opinion:
:''If we remind ourselves of Norman’s point that the Pali canon contains no definite evidence for a substantial amount of Sinhalese prakrit (see above p.1), it seems quite clear that after the Tipitaka was written down in the first century B.C., it was not substantially altered, at least in content, and as such, it must have been very similar to the extant Pali Canon. This means that the Suttapitaka in existence today can be taken as an accurate record of Buddhist thought from the time of the Buddha (c. 484-404 B.C.) until the first century B.C. at the latest[25].''
The early origins of the Pali Canon are unknown
Dr Gregory Schopen[26] holds a minority position, arguing[27] that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries C.E. that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. Schopen claims to have based his research on archaeological evidence only, since the textual information found in the Pali Canon is, according to him, too unreliable because no old hard copies (on paper) are available which date from before 4th century AD.
Alexander Wynne[28] and Bhikkhu Sujato[29] wrote detailed critiques of Schopen's position, saying that Schopen's approach is unbalanced[30]. They claim that the texts, contrary to Schopens' opinions, are indispensible, but that one should use them in tandem with the material evidence[31], and that Schopen makes generalisations about Indian Buddhism based on a very small amount of evidence, considering only the works of a few rich monks in ancient India who had the means to make large offerings in which they made inscriptions, disregarding the many ordinairy monks who lived simple lives[32]. Wynne and Sujato claim that actual texts carry much more meaningful, complete and detailed information than inscriptions found on such objects like Buddha images and Stupas[33], while the archaeological finds can be used to check the correctness of the information in the texts. They also claim to have found various mistakes in Schopen's research[34]. The position that one cannot know anything about the teachings of the Buddha has been criticized to be one of 'extreme caution'[35].
The Earliest books of the Pali Canon
Likewise, different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works,[36] the Vinaya (excluding the Parivara[37]) and the first four nikayas of the Sutta,[38], and perhaps also some short verse works [39] such as the Suttanipata.[40]However, some scholars, paricularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana.[41]
Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions.[42] On the other hand, some scholars have claimed[43] that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.
It is often stated that the Canon survives complete. However, in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Burmese, Sinhalese and Thai editions all have footnotes stating that a sutta[44] mentioned in the commentary is not found in the text. The Burmese and Sinhalese editions give it a heading and number, with no text following (the Thai edition does not use headings and numbers for suttas in this part of the Canon).
Texts and translations
The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[45] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[46]
The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes.[47] The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.
★ Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also available separately (website)
★ Thai edition, 1925–8, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings[48]; electronic transcript by budsir: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment
★ Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–6, 40 volumes; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with fewer variant readings[49]; electronic transcript by Vipassana Research Institute available online in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the Institute; another transcript of this edition, produced by the Dhamma Society Fund under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, is expected online soon
★ Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, transcript in Pali Canon Online Database, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread)
No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.[50]
Translation: ''Pali Canon in English Translation'', 1895- , in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Lancaster; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles.
Selections
The following including material from at least two pitakas. For more specialized selections see appropriate articles. For broader selections see Buddhist texts and Pali literature.
★ ''Some Sayings of the Buddha'', ed & tr F. L. Woodward, Oxford World Classics, 1924
★ ''The Life of Gotama the Buddha'', ed E. H. Brewster, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1926
★ ''Buddhist Scriptures'', ed & tr E. J. Thomas, Wisdom of the East Series, John Murray, London, 1931
★ ''The Vedantic Buddhism of the Buddha'', ed & tr J. G. Jennings, pub Geoffrey Cumberlege, London, 1947
★ ''The Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha'', ed Ananda K. Coomaraswamy & I. B. Horner, Cassell, London, 1948
★ ''The Lion's Roar'', ed & tr David Maurice, Rider, London, 1962
★ ''The Life of the Buddha'', ed & tr Nanamoli, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1972
Contents of the Canon
As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.
★ Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka)
★ Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka
★ Abhidhamma Pitaka
Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature.[51]
=== Vinaya Pitaka ===
The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the ''sangha'', both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.
★ Suttavibhanga () Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered.
★ Khandhaka Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters.
★ Parivara (parivāra) Analysis of the rules from various points of view.
=== Sutta Pitaka ===
The second category is the ''Sutta Pitaka'' (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: ''Sutra Pitaka'', following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas.
★ Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya) 34 long discourses.[52] Joy Manné argues[53] that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of debates and devotional material.
★ Majjhima Nikaya 152 medium-length discourses.[54] Manné argues[16] that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations.
★ Samyutta Nikaya () Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his translation, says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine.
★ Anguttara Nikaya () Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three.
★ Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. See below.
Khuddaka Nikaya
The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources,[56] contains the following.
★ Khuddakapatha () Nine short texts in prose or verse. This seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for novices.[57] Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon.
★ Dhammapada 423 verses ascribed by tradition to the Buddha in 26 chapters by topic. About half the Pali verses are found elsewhere in the canon. In the Sinhalese tradition, monks have been required to know this book by heart before they can be ordained.[58] In the Burmese examination system, this is one of the texts to be studied in the first stage of the syllabus.[59]
★ Udana (udāna) 80 short passages, mostly verse, ascribed to the Buddha, with introductory stories.
★ Itivuttaka 112 short prose teachings ascribed to the Buddha followed by verse paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from ones to fours.
★ Suttanipata(-nipāta) Poems, some in prose frameworks. In five parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a conclusion, which last includes a little prose.
★ Vimanavatthu (vimāna-) 85 poems telling of celestial mansions resulting from good karma.
★ Petavatthu 51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting from bad karma. It gives prominence to the idea that gifts to monks can benefit one's deceased relatives' ghosts.
★ Theragatha(-gāthā) 264 poems ascribed to early monks, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses.
★ Therigatha (therī-) 73 poems ascribed to early nuns, arranged by increasing number of verses.
★ Jataka (jātaka) 547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous lives,[54] arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Professor Oskar von Hinüber[61] says only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible on their own without the Commentary. As a result of the arrangement, these make up the greater part of the book.[62]
★ Niddesa Commentary on parts of Suttanipata:[54] the last two parts and one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Sariputta.
★ Patisambhidamagga () 30 treatises on various topics. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. Gethin[64] says this book presents the awakening experience as having many different dimensions and aspects, related to the whole of the teaching, and yet as a simple, coherent whole.
★ Apadana (apadāna) About 600 poems, most telling how their authors performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in a number of others.[65]
★ Buddhavamsa () Short verse book, mainly telling of the previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his previous lives.
★ Cariyapitaka (cariyā-) 35 poems telling of Gotama Buddha's practice of 7 of the perfections in his previous lives.
However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical.
Paracanonical or semicanonical works
The following works are included in the Sixth Council edition of the Canon,[66] including the new transcript from Thailand.[67]
★ Nettipakarana (, or just netti) This book presents methods of interpretation. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
★ Petakopadesa () Presents the same methods as the preceding book. They have a large amount of overlap. The text of this book is very corrupt. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
★ Milindapanha (-pañha or -pañhā) A dialogue between King Menander of Bactria (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena. Rhys Davids describes this as the greatest work of classical Indian prose literature.
The first two of these, but not the third, are included in the Sinhalese (printed) edition. All are omitted from the Thai edition.
Inclusion in printed editions is not the same as canonicity (cf. Apocrypha). Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others as canonical, especially in Burma.[68] About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical.[69] On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not.[70]
Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon
=== Abhidhamma Pitaka ===
The third category, the ''Abhidhamma Pitaka '' (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: ''Abhidharma Pitaka''), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
★ Dhammasangani ( or ) Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas
★ Vibhanga () Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani
★ Dhatukatha(dhātukathā) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books
★ Puggalapannatti (-paññatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens
★ Kathavatthu (kathā-)Over 200 debates on points of doctrine
★ Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)
★ Patthana () Analysis of 24 types of condition[71]
The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,[16] Gethin.[73] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions.[74]
Comparison with other Buddhist canons
The other two main canons in use at the present day are the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Buddhist Canon. The former is in about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and the Dhammapada (the latter confusingly called Udanavarga) and of parts of some other books. The standard modern edition of the latter is the Taisho published in Japan, which is in a hundred much larger volumes. It includes both canonical and non-canonical (including Chinese and Japanese) literature and its arrangement does not clearly distinguish the two. It includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the first four nikayas, the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka and the Milindapanha and of parts of some other books. These Chinese and Tibetan versions are not usually translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but are recognizably the "same" works. On the other hand, the Chinese abhidharma books are different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, though they follow a common methodology.
Looking at things from the other side, the bulk of the Chinese and Tibetan canons consists of Mahayana sutras and tantras, which, apart from a few tantras,[75] have no equivalent in the Pali Canon.
Notes
1. Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism'', 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3
2. ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
3. A.K. Warder, ''Indian Buddhism'', 3rd edn, page 307. American Asiatic Association, Asia Society, ''Asia: Journal of the American Asiatic Association'', p724.
4. Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.
5. Bechert & Gombrich, ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 293
6. Gombrich, page 4
7. Gethin, ''Foundations of Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1998, page 43
8. Gombrich, page 20
9. Gombrich, pages 153-4
10. Morgan, ''Path of the Buddha'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956, pages v, 71
11. ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', volume 28 (part 2), page 302
12. Mendelson, ''Sangha and State in Burma'', Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266
13. ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006
14. Gombrich, page 20
15. Harvey, page 3; Warder, ''Path of Discrimination'', Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, ''Path'', page 8
16. loc. cit.
17. According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (29-17 B.C.).1 It has been generally accepted, therefore, that the canon contains information about the early history of Indian Buddhism, from the time of the Buddha (c.484-404 B.C.) until the end of the first century B.C. That the canonical texts are a record of the period of Buddhism before they were written down in Sri Lanka seems to be confirmed by the fact that their language, Pali, is north Indian in origin.
18. ''The Pali Canon shows no definite evidence for a substantial amount of Sinhalese Prakrit, leading to the conclusion that no substantial additions were made to it after it arrived in Sri Lanka.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p.1
19. If we remind ourselves of Norman’s point that the Pali canon contains no definite evidence for a substantial amount of Sinhalese prakrit (see above p.1), it seems quite clear that after the Tipitaka was written down in the first century B.C., it was not substantially altered, at least in content, and as such, it must have been very similar to the extant Pali Canon. This means that the Suttapitaka in existence today can be taken as an accurate record of Buddhist thought from the time of the Buddha (c. 484-404 B.C.) until the first century B.C. at the latest.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p.11
20. ''If the language of the Pali canon is north Indian in origin, and without substantial Sinhalese additions, it is likely that the canon was composed somewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka, and is therefore a source for the period of Buddhism in northern India before this.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, P.1
21. ''This means that much of the material in the Pali Canon, especially the Sutta and Vinaya portions, reached Sri Lanka at around 250 B.C.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p. 28,
22. ''It is therefore possible that much of what is found in the Suttapitaka is earlier than c.250 B.C., perhaps even more than 100 years older than this. If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, P.22
23. Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society
24. pages 20f
25. How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. P.11
26. Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin
27. ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, page 24 (reprinted from ''Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik'', volume 10 (1985))
28. How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. download pdf version from the website of Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
29. A History of Mindfulness, pdf
30. Unfortunately, in his eagerness to point out that the studies of previous generations of Buddhist scholars were one-sided, Schopen has created another one-sided version of history. What is needed is a balanced approach that gives both sets of evidence, the literary and material, their due worth.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. P.6
31. ''The fact is that the texts are indispensable: the literary evidence, even if only normative, and even if it was periodically revised until the rather late redactions, is most certainly a useful record, not as subsidiary to the material evidence, as Schopen believes, but in tandem with it, so that the two sorts of evidence are used equally.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003.P.5
32. ''In other words, there is a tendency in Schopen’s work to make generalisations about Indian Buddhism based on a very small amount of evidence. Even if the generalisations were true in every respect, it would only reveal the historical reality of a tiny part of Indian Buddhism. ... For all we know, the inscriptions might represent only a small minority of the ancient Indian Sangha, the minority who had personal wealth and who could endow Buddhist institutions in different ways.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. p4-5
33. ''This will show that a careful use of textual sources is the only way to know anything about Buddhism in the pre-Asokan period, and will lead to the conclusions that, contrary to what Schopen thinks, some material in the Suttapitaka is historically accurate and extremely old.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. p.22.
34. ''We can conclude that a careful examination of the early Buddhist literature can reveal aspects of the pre-Asokan history of Indian Buddhism. The claim that we cannot know anything about early Indian Buddhism because all the manuscripts are late is vacuous, and made, I assume, by those who have not studied the textual material properly.'' How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. p.29
35. ‘’in the name of that extreme caution which some suppose to be the hallmark of the sound academic, some scholars have claimed that we do not know what the Buddha taught and cannot now find out.’’ AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, preface to 1st edition.
36. A. K. Warder, ''Introduction to Pali'', 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii
37. L. S. Cousins in ''Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa'', ed Dhammapala, Gombrich and Norman, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56
38. ''The World of Buddhism'', ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin, pages 42f
39. Gethin, ''The Buddha's Path to Awakening'', E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992
40. Cousins, loc. cit.
41. Nakamura, ''Indian Buddhism'', Japan, 1980, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 27
42. Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to ''Path of Discrimination'', 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix
43. Cousins, "Pali oral literature", in ''Buddhist Studies'', ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press, London, 1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; ''The Guide'', Pali Text Society, page xxvii
44. Catukka Nipāta, Tatiya Paṇṇāsa(ka), Valāhaka Vagga, sutta 6
45. Hinüber, ''Handbook of Pali Literature'', Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5.
46. [2]
47. Günter Grönbold, ''Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie'', Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete
48. Warder, ''Introduction to Pali'', 1963, PTS, page 382
49. Hamm in ''German Scholars on India'', volume I, ed Cultural Department of the German Embassy in India, pub Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1973, translated from ''Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft'', 1962
50. Cone, ''Dictionary of Pali'', volume I, PTS, 2001
51. Norman, ''Pali Literature'', Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.
52. Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', appendix
53. ''Journal of the Pali Text Society'', volume XV
54. Harvey, appendix
55. loc. cit.
56. Pali Text Society; Norman; Hinüber; Harvey, Appendix; Lamotte, ''History of Indian Buddhism'', 1958, English tr, Oriental Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, 1988
57. Norman, page 58
58. Dhammapada, ed Sumangala, pub Humphrey Milford for the Pali Text Society, London, 1914, page v
59. Mendelson, appendix
60. Harvey, appendix
61. op. cit.
62. This can be verified by inspecting the table of contents of the VRI transcription.
63. Harvey, appendix
64. ''Path'', pages 311f
65. ''JPTS'', volume XX, pages 1-42
66. ''The Guide'', Pali Text Society, 1962, page xii; Hinüber
67. ([3]).
68. ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'', ed Potter, volume VII, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1996
69. ''JPTS'', volume XXVIII, pages 61f
70. Rewata Dhamma, ''The Buddha and His Disciples'', Dhamma-Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 89
71. Harvey, page 83
72. loc. cit.
73. ''Foundations'', page 44
74. "Pali oral literature", page 7
75. Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo, rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong) editions of the Kangyur: Skilling, ''Mahasutras'', volume I, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Lancaster, pages 84n, 553ff, 617ff.
See also
★ Buddhist texts
★ Tripitaka
★ Pali Literature
★ Tripitaka Koreana
External links
★ What-Buddha-Said.net What Buddha said in plain English. Translations & Explanations.
★ The Three Baskets as in the Buddhist Encyclopedia
★ Guide to Tipitaka– Online transcript of a book by Professor U Ko Lay giving a detailed account of the contents of the Burmese edition of the Canon.
English translations
★ Access to Insight has many suttas translated into English
★ Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library
★ Most of the Pali Canon in Pali, and much in Sinhala and English of Metta.lk (Sri Lanka)
★ Tipitaka Online of Nibbana.com (Myanmar)
★ Search in English translations of the Tipitaka
Other
★ Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.
★ The Pali Text Society
★ Tipitaka Network
★ Online Pali-English Dictionary
★ The Pali Tipitaka Project
★ Global online recitation service
Further reading
In addition to Ko Lay's book above, two other books are devoted to detailed accounts of the Canon:
★ ''History of Pali Literature'', B. C. Law, volume I
★ ''Analysis of the Pali Canon'', Russell Webb, Buddist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka
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