'Titanium' (
IPA: ) is a
chemical element; in the
periodic table it has the symbol 'Ti' and
atomic number 22. It is a light, strong, lustrous,
corrosion-resistant (including resistance to
sea water and
chlorine)
transition metal with a white-silvery-metallic
color. Titanium can be
alloyed with other elements such as
iron,
aluminium,
vanadium,
molybdenum and others, to produce strong lightweight alloys for aerospace (
jet engines,
missiles, and
spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petro-chemicals,
desalination plants, pulp and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical (
prostheses, orthopaedic implants, dental implants), sporting goods, and other applications.
[1] Titanium was discovered in England by
William Gregor in 1791 and named by
Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the
Titans of
Greek mythology.
The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally
rutile and
ilmenite, which are widely distributed in the
Earth's crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all living things, rocks, water bodies and soils.
The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores via the
Kroll process.
Its most common compound,
titanium dioxide, is used in the manufacture of white pigments.
[2] Other compounds include
titanium tetrachloride (used in
smoke screens/
skywriting and as a
catalyst) and
titanium trichloride (used as a catalyst in the production of
polypropylene).
The two most useful properties of the metal form are corrosion resistance, and the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.
[3] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as
steel, but 45% lighter.
There are two
allotropic forms
[4] and five naturally occurring
isotopes of this element;
46Ti through
50Ti with
48Ti being the most
abundant (73.8%).
[5] Titanium's properties are chemically and physically similar to
zirconium.
History
Titanium was
discovered combined in a
mineral in
Cornwall,
England in 1791 by amateur geologist
William Gregor, the then vicar of
Creed village. He recognized the presence of a new element in
ilmenite when he found black sand by a stream in the nearby
parish of
Manaccan and noticed the sand was attracted by a
magnet. Analysis of the sand determined the presence of two metal oxides;
iron oxide (explaining the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.
[6] Gregor, realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match the properties of any known element, reported his findings to the
Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and in the German science journal ''
Crell's Annalen''.
[7]
Around the same time,
Franz Joseph Muller also produced a similar substance, but could not identify it.
The oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by
German chemist
Martin Heinrich Klaproth in
rutile from
Hungary.
[8] Klaproth found that it contained a new element and named it for the
Titans of
Greek mythology.
After hearing about Gregor's earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of ''manaccanite'' and confirmed it contained titanium.
The processes required to extract titanium from its various ores are laborious and costly; it is not possible to reduce in the normal manner, by heating in the presence of
carbon, because that produces
titanium carbide.
Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by
Matthew A. Hunter by heating Ti
Cl4 with
sodium in a
steel bomb at 700 – 800 °C in the
Hunter process.
Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1946 when
William Justin Kroll proved that it could be commercially produced by reducing
titanium tetrachloride with
magnesium in what came to be known as the
Kroll process. Although research continues into more efficient and cheaper processes (
FFC Cambridge, e.g.), the Kroll process is still used for commercial production.
Titanium of very high purity was made in small quantities when
Anton Eduard van Arkel and
Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide, or
crystal bar, process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal.
[9]
In the 1950s and 1960s the
Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications (
Alfa Class and
Mike Class)
[10] as part of programs related to the Cold War.
[11] In the USA, the DOD realized the strategic importance of the metal
[12] and supported early efforts of commercialization.
[13]
Throughout the period of the
Cold War, titanium was considered a Strategic Material by the U.S. government, and a large stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center, which was finally depleted in 2005.
[14] Today, the world's largest producer, Russian-based
VSMPO-Avisma, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.
[15]
In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to develop a new process for making titanium metal
powder. Under heat and pressure, the powder can be used to create strong, lightweight items ranging from armor plating to components for the aerospace, transportation and chemical processing industries.
[16]
Characteristics
Physical
A
metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.
It is a light, strong metal with low
density that, when pure, is quite
ductile (especially in an
oxygen-free environment),
[17] lustrous, and metallic-white in
color. The relatively high
melting point (over 1,649 °C or 3,000 °F) makes it useful as a
refractory metal.
Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strengths of about 63,000
psi, equal to that of steels alloys, but are 45% lighter.
Titanium is 60% heavier than
aluminium, but more than twice as strong
as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 200,000 psi (1.4 GPa).
[3]
However, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (800 °F).
It is fairly hard (although by no means as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel) and can be tricky to machine due to the fact that it will if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those made from steel, titanium structures have a
fatigue limit which guarantees longevity in some applications.
[19]
The metal is a dimorphic
allotrope with the hexagonal alpha form changing into the body-centered cubic (lattice) beta form at 882 °C (1,619 °F).
The
heat capacity of the alpha form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly constant for the beta form regardless of temperature.
Chemical
The most noted chemical property of titanium is its excellent resistance to
corrosion; it is almost as resistant as
platinum, capable of withstanding attack by
acids, moist
chlorine gas, and by common
salt solutions.
Pure titanium is not
soluble in water but is soluble in concentrated acids.
[20]
This metal forms a
passive and protective
oxide coating (leading to increased corrosion-resistance) when exposed to elevated temperatures in air, but at room temperatures it resists
tarnishing.
When it first forms, this protective layer is only 1 to 2 nanometers thick but continues to slowly grow; reaching a thickness of 25 nanometers in four years.
Titanium burns when heated in air 610 °C (1,130 °F) or higher, forming titanium dioxide.
It is also one of the few elements that burns in pure
nitrogen gas (it burns at 800 °C or 1,472 °F and forms
titanium nitride, which causes embrittlement).
[21] Titanium is resistant to dilute
sulfuric and
hydrochloric acid, along with
chlorine gas,
chloride solutions, and most
organic acids.
It is
paramagnetic (weakly attracted to
magnets) and has fairly low
electrical and
thermal conductivity.
Experiments have shown that natural titanium becomes
radioactive after it is bombarded with
deuterons, emitting mainly
positrons and hard
gamma rays.
When it is red hot the metal combines with oxygen, and when it reaches 550 °C (1,022 °F) it combines with
chlorine.
It also reacts with the other
halogens and absorbs
hydrogen.
Occurrence
Source: 2003 production of titanium dioxide.[22]Due to rounding, values do not sum to 100%.
Titanium is always bonded to other elements in nature. It is the ninth-most abundant element in the
Earth's crust (0.63% by
mass)
and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present in most
igneous rocks and in
sediments derived from them (as well as in living things and natural bodies of water).
In fact, of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the
United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium.
Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.
It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the
minerals
anatase,
brookite,
ilmenite,
perovskite,
rutile,
titanite (sphene), as well in many
iron ores. Of these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have any economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations.
Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite deposits exist in western
Australia,
Canada,
New Zealand,
Norway, and
Ukraine. Large quantities of rutile are also mined in
North America and
South Africa and help contribute to the annual production of 90,000
tonnes of the metal and 4.3 million tonnes of titanium dioxide. Total known reserves of titanium are estimated to exceed 600 million tonnes.
Titanium is contained in
meteorites and has been detected in the
sun and in
M-type stars;
the coolest type of star with a surface temperature of 3,200 °C (5,792 °F).
s brought back from the
moon during the
Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12.1% TiO
2.
It is also found in
coal ash,
plants, and even the
human body.
Production and fabrication
Titanium (Mineral Concentrate)
The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps:
[3] reduction of titanium ore into "sponge", a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, whereby an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.
Because the metal reacts with oxygen at high temperatures it cannot be produced by
reduction of its dioxide. Titanium metal is therefore produced commercially by the
Kroll process, a complex and expensive
batch process. (The relatively high market value of titanium is mainly due to its processing, which sacrifices another expensive metal, magnesium.
) In the Kroll process, the oxide is first converted to chloride through
carbochlorination, whereby
chlorine gas is passed over red-hot
rutile or
ilmenite in the presence of
carbon to make
TiCl4. This is condensed and purified by
fractional distillation and then
reduced with 800 °C molten
magnesium in an
argon atmosphere.
A more recently developed method, the
FFC Cambridge process,
[25] may eventually replace the Kroll process. This method uses
titanium dioxide powder (which is a refined form of
rutile) as feedstock to make the end product which is either a powder or sponge. If mixed oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy manufactured at a much lower cost than the conventional multi-step melting process. The FFC Cambridge Process may render titanium a less rare and expensive material for the
aerospace industry and the luxury goods market, and could be seen in many products currently manufactured using
aluminium and specialist grades of
steel.
Common titanium
alloys are made by reduction. For example; cuprotitanium (rutile with
copper added is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (
ilmenite reduced with
coke in an electric furnace), and manganotitanium (
rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.
::2
TiFeO3 + 7
Cl2 + 6
C (900 °C) → 2
TiCl4 + 2
FeCl3 + 6
CO
::
TiCl4 + 2
Mg (1100 °C) → 2
MgCl2 + 'Ti'
About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used, although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially.
[3] The
ASTM International recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1 through 4 are commercially pure (unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their varying degrees of tensile strength, as a function of
oxygen content, with Grade 1 being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and Grade 4 the least (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).
The remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specific purposes, be it ductility, strength, hardness, electrical resistivity,
creep resistance, resistance to corrosion from specific media, or a combination thereof.
[27]
The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military, medical and industrial applications.
[3]
In terms of fabrication, all
welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of
argon or
helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases such as oxygen,
nitrogen or
hydrogen, and to prevent fires, as molten titanium is highly reactive to oxygen.
Contamination will cause a variety of conditions, such as embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to joint failure.
Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must take into account the fact that the metal has a 'memory' and tends to spring back. This is especially true of certain high-strength alloys.
[29][30] The metal can be machined using the same equipment and via the same processes as
stainless steel.
Applications
Watch with titanium cover
Titanium is used in
steel as an alloying element (
ferro-titanium) to reduce
grain size and as a deoxidizer, and in
stainless steel to reduce
carbon content.
Titanium is often alloyed with
aluminium (to refine grain size),
vanadium,
copper (to harden),
iron,
manganese,
molybdenum, and with other metals.
[31] Applications for titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in
pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.
Pigments, Additives and Coatings
_oxide.jpg)
Titanium dioxide is the most commonly used compound of titanium
About 95% of titanium ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into
titanium dioxide (), an intensely white permanent
pigment used in
paints,
paper,
toothpaste, and
plastics.
[32] It is also used in
cement, in
gemstones, as an optical opacifier in
paper,
[33] and a strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs.
powder is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household plastics.
In nature, this compound is found in the
minerals
anatase,
brookite, and
rutile.
Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures, is somewhat self-cleaning, and stands up to marine environments.
Pure titanium dioxide has a very high
index of refraction and an
optical dispersion higher than
diamond.
Recently, it has been put to use in air purifiers (as a filter coating), or in film used to coat windows on buildings which when exposed to
UV light (either solar or man-made) and moisture in the air produces reactive redox species like hydroxyl radicals that can purify the air or keep window surfaces clean.
[34]
Aerospace and Marine
The engines alone of the
Airbus A380 use about 11 tons of titanium
Because of their high
tensile strength to density ratio,
high corrosion resistance
and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without
creeping, titanium
alloys are used in
aircraft,
armor plating,
naval ships,
spacecraft and
missiles.
For these applications titanium alloyed with aluminum, vanadium and other elements is used for a variety of components including critical structural parts, fire walls,
landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters) and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.
The
SR-71 "Blackbird" was the first aircraft to make extensive use of titanium within its structure, paving the way for its use in modern fighter and commercial aircraft. An estimated 58 tons are used in the
Boeing 777, 43 in the
747, 18 in the
737, 24 in the
Airbus A340, 17 in the
A330 and 12 in the
A320. The
A380 may use 77 tons, including about 11 tons in the engines.
[35] In engine applications, titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components and
nacelles. The
titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.
[3]
Due to its high corrosion resistance to
sea water, titanium is used to make propeller shafts and rigging and in the
heat exchangers of
desalination plants;
in heater-chillers for salt water
aquariums, fishing line and leader and for divers' knives. Titanium is used to manufacture the housings and other components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for scientific and military use.
Industrial
Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specific alloys are used in downhole and
nickel hydrometallurgy applications due to their high strength (
titanium Beta C) or corrosion resistance or combination of both. The
pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).
[3] Other applications include:
ultrasonic welding,
wave soldering,
[38] and
sputtering targets.
[39]
Consumer and Architectural
Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or motorcycle racing, where weight reduction is critical while maintaining high strength and rigidity. The metal is generally too expensive to make it marketable to the general consumer market, other than high end products. Late model
Corvettes have been available with titanium exhausts,
[40] and racing bikes are frequently outfitted with titanium mufflers. Other automotive uses include piston rods and hardware (bolts, nuts, etc.).
The Parker Pen company used titanium to form the T-1 fountain pen, later expanded to T-1 ball pens and rollerballs. The T-1 fountain pen was introduced in 1970 and the T-1 rollerball and ball pen in 1971. Production was stopped in 1972 due to the high cost of manufacturing titanium. Parker T-1's are prized for their collectibility by collectors.
Hammer heads made of titanium were introduced in 1999. Their light weight allows for a longer handle which increases the velocity of the head and results in more energy being delivered to the nail, all while decreasing arm fatigue. Titanium also decreases the shock transferred to the user because a titanium head generates about 3% recoil compared to a steel head that generates about 27%.
Titanium is used in many sporting goods;
tennis rackets,
golf clubs,
lacrosse stick shafts;
cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and football helmet grills, and
bicycle frames and components. Titanium alloys are also used in
spectacle frames. This results in a rather expensive, but highly durable and long lasting frame which is light in weight and causes no skin allergies. Many
backpackers use titanium equipment, including cookware, eating utensils, lanterns and tent stakes. Though slightly more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, these titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored for use by
farriers, since it is lighter and more durable than
steel when formed into
horseshoes. Titanium horseshoes can be found in
horse racing, and are used by many
Amish horse owners, who rely entirely on horse-drawn carriages for transportation. Titanium has even become somewhat popular for use in jewelry, such as rings.
Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 120 foot (40 m) memorial to
Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in
Moscow, is made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry.
[41] The
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the
Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels. Other construction uses of titanium sheathing include the
Frederic C. Hamilton Building in (
Denver,
Colorado).
[42]
Medical
Because it is biocompatible (non-toxic and is not rejected by the body), titanium is used in a gamut of medical applications including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (
joint replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20 years. Titanium has the inherent property to
osseointegrate, enabling use in
dental implants that can remain in place for over 30 years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications.
Since titanium is non-
ferromagnetic, patients with titanium implants can be safely examined with
magnetic resonance imaging (convenient for long-term implants). Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high-temperature
plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidized.
Titanium is also used for the
surgical instruments used in
image-guided surgery, as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other product where high strength and low weight are important.
Its inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes it a popular metal for use in
body piercing.
[43] Titanium may be
anodized to produce various colors.
[44] A number of artists work with titanium to produce artworks such as sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.
Jewelry
Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry in recent years, whereas until recently the metal was too difficult to work into the intricate shapes with the precision necessary for fine
jewelry. Today, titanium rings -- including
engagement rings and
wedding bands -- are one of the fastest growing segments of the titanium jewelry market, in part due to the ability of the metal to be grooved, inlaid, and carved without losing strength. Some titanium jewelry also incorporates
diamonds or other gemstones, typically in close settings such as bezels, flush, or tension designs.
[45]
Firearms
Due to its superior strength and light weight when compared to other metals traditionally used in firearms (
steel,
stainless steel, and
aluminum), and advances in metal-working techniques, the use of titanium has become more widespread in the manufacture of firearms. Primary uses include
pistol frames and
revolver cylinders.
Compounds
The +4
oxidation state dominates in titanium chemistry, but compounds in the +3
oxidation state are also common. Because of this high oxidation state, many titanium compounds have a high degree of
covalent bonding.
Star sapphires and
rubies get their
asterism from the titanium dioxide impurities present in them.
s are compounds made with titanium dioxide.
Barium titanate has
piezoelectric properties, thus making it possible to use it as a transducer in the interconversion of
sound and
electricity.
s of titanium are formed by the reaction of
alcohols and titanium tetrachloride and are used to waterproof
fabrics.
(TiN) is often used to coat cutting tools, such as
drill bits. It also finds use as a gold-coloured decorative finish, and as a
barrier metal in
semiconductor fabrication.
Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl
4, sometimes called "Tickle") is a colourless liquid which is used as an intermediate in the manufacture of titanium dioxide for paint. It is widely used in
organic chemistry as a
Lewis acid, for example in the
Mukaiyama aldol condensation. Titanium also forms a lower chloride,
titanium(III) chloride (TiCl
3), which is used as a
reducing agent.
Titanocene dichloride is an important catalyst for carbon-carbon bond formation.
Titanium isopropoxide is used for
Sharpless epoxidation. Other compounds include;
titanium bromide (used in metallurgy,
superalloys, and high-temperature electrical wiring and coatings) and
titanium carbide (found in high-temperature cutting tools and coatings).
Isotopes
Main articles: Isotopes of titanium
Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable
isotopes;
46Ti,
47Ti,
48Ti,
49Ti and
50Ti with
48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%
natural abundance). Eleven
radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being
44Ti with a
half-life of 63 years,
45Ti with a half-life of 184.8 minutes,
51Ti with a half-life of 5.76 minutes, and
52Ti with a half-life of 1.7 minutes. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 33 seconds and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half a second.
The isotopes of titanium range in
atomic weight from 39.99
u (
40Ti) to 57.966 u (
58Ti). The primary
decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope,
48Ti, is
electron capture and the primary mode after is
beta emission. The primary
decay products before
48Ti are element 21 (
scandium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 23 (
vanadium) isotopes.
Precautions
Nettle contains up to 80 parts per million of titanium
Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the
human body. An estimated 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day but most passes through without being absorbed. It does, however, have a tendency to
bio-accumulate in tissues that contain
silica. An unknown mechanism in
plants may use titanium to stimulate the production of
carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why most plants contain about 1
part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm and
horsetail and
nettle contain up to 80 ppm.
As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in
air, an explosion hazard. Water and
carbon dioxide-based methods to extinguish fires are ineffective on burning titanium;
Class D dry powder fire fighting agents must be used instead.
Even bulk titanium metal is susceptible to fire, when it is heated to its melting point. A number of titanium fires occur during breaking down devices containing titanium parts with
cutting torches.
When used in the production or handling of
chlorine care must be taken use titanium only in locations where it will not be exposed to dry chlorine gas which can result in a titanium/chlorine fire. Care must be taken even when titanium is used in wet chlorine do to possible unexpected drying due to extreme weather conditions.
Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface gets in contact with
liquid oxygen. Such surface can appear when an oxidized surface is struck with a hard object, or when a mechanical strain causes an emergence of a crack. This poses a limit for use of titanium in liquid oxygen systems in eg. aerospace industry.
Salts of titanium are often considered to be relatively harmless but its chlorine compounds, such as
TiCl2,
TiCl3 and
TiCl4, have unusual hazards. The dichloride takes the form of
pyrophoric black crystals, and the tetrachloride is a volatile fuming liquid. All of titanium's chlorides are
corrosive.
See also
★
Titanium coating
★
★
Titanium in Africa
★
★
VSMPO-AVISMA
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31. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements, , Clifford A., Hampel, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1968, ISBN 0442155980
32. USGS Minerals Information: Titanium United States Geological Survey
33. Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologists (3rd edition), , Gary A., Smook, Angus Wilde Publications, 2002, ISBN 0-9694628-5-9
34.
35. Rosoboronexport controls titanium in Russia
36. TITANIUM: A Technical Guide, Matthew J. Donachie, Jr., , , ASM International, 1988, ISBN 0871703092
37. TITANIUM: A Technical Guide, Matthew J. Donachie, Jr., , , ASM International, 1988, ISBN 0871703092
38. Industrial Application of Titanium and Zirconium, E.W. Kleefisch, Editor, , , ASTM International, 1981, ISBN 0803107455
39. Handbook of Hard Coatings, Rointan F. Bunshah, Editor, , , William Andrew Inc., 2001, ISBN 0815514387
40. Titanium Exhausts National Corvette Museum
41. Yuri Gagarin Microsoft Encarta
42. Denver Art Museum, Frederic C. Hamilton Building
43. Body Piercing Safety
44. Electrochemistry Encyclopedia Alwitt, Robert S.
45. Titanium Engagement Rings at LoveToKnow Melissa Mayntz
★
Materials Science: A moving oxygen story, , Harvey M., Flower, Nature, 2000
★
Guide to the Elements (Revised Edition), , Albert, Stwertka, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-508083-1
★
Chemistry: Periodic table: Titanium
External links
★
A Cleaner, Cheaper Route to Titanium
★
International Titanium Association
★
Metallurgy of Titanium and its Alloys, Cambridge University
★
World Production of Titanium Concentrates, by Country
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