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The term 'tourist apartheid' was coined in the early 1990s after Cuba first opened up to foreign tourists.[1]Amrhein, Saundra and Lush, Tamara. The 'reality tour' of Cuba, ''St. Petersburg Times'', May 12, 2002. The term describes the policy in Cuba, by which premiere resorts and the ability to purchase luxury goods at special tourist stores are offered exclusively to tourists.[2][3] Human Rights Watch states "Cuban nationals are routinely barred from enjoying amenities open to foreigners ... the best hotels, resorts, beaches, and restaurants are off limits to most Cubans, as are certain government health institutions," and contrasts this practise with the Constitution of Cuba, which "bars discrimination based on 'race, skin color, sex, national origin, religious creeds, and any other type [of discrimination] offending human dignity.'"[4] Cuban president Fidel Castro described Cuba's tourism policies as an economic necessity and such analysis as a "perfidious, perverse, cynical" campaign to present the current situation as "a case of discrimination."Farah, Douglas. Catering to Foreigners Instead of Cubans Puts Castro on Defensive ''Washington Post'' Foreign Service Sunday, August 9, 1992.
The policy was precipitated by the economic crisis known in Cuba as "the Special Period" which began in the early 1990s, and the government's resulting need to earn hard currency to make up for lost economic aid from the Soviet Union.Cave, Damien. Tourism apartheid in Cuba, ''Salon.com'', February 6, 2002. Retrieved July 10, 2006. [5][6] "To further isolate international tourism from Cuban society, tourism was to be promoted in enclaves where, as much as possible, tourists would be segregated from Cuban society."[7] "The growing dichotomy was not lost on the average Cuban citizen, and the government tourism policy soon began to be referred to as 'tourism apartheid.'"Espino, María Dolores. , Proceedings of the Annual Meetings of the Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (ASCE), Volume 10, August 3-5, 2000.
In 1992, as Cuba entered the period of severe economic austerity, Cuban dictator Fidel Castro defended the newly instituted policies in a speech to the Cuban National Assembly. He described the moves as an economic necessity that would need to be maintained for as long as the country had a need for foreign currency. According to Castro, the government was "pondering formulas" that would allow Cubans to use some of the tourist facilities as a reward for outstanding work, but believed that giving Cubans access to amenities at the expense of paying foreign tourists would ultimately be a counterproductive move for the economy; "For every five Cubans staying two or three days in one of those hotels, the country would have one less ton of meat to distribute to the people,".
Until 1997, Contacts between tourists and Cubans were ''de facto'' outlawed, and Cubans in seen contact with tourists were regarded as potential thieves by police.[8] Global human rights groups complaints, and the upcoming Pope's visit, helped cause an about-face, although such contacts are still frowned upon, with standard harassment such as police identification checks for any Cuban seen in contact with a tourist common. This Is Cuba: An Outlaw Culture Survives, , Ben, Corbett, Westview Press, 2004, [9] Despite the restrictions, average Cubans thrive on Cuba's tourist industry, and many simply see the policy as inevitable.
The policy had a major impact on the underlying egalitarianism espoused by the Cuban revolution.[10][11]Gunn, Gillian. , Georgetown University Cuba Briefing Paper Series, "Tourist Apartheid", January 1993. Two parallel economies and societies quickly emerged, their demarcation line was represented by access to the newly legalized U.S. dollar. Those having access to dollars through contact with the lucrative tourist industry suddenly found themselves at a distinct financial advantage over professional, industrial and agricultural workers.[12]
Tourist apartheid has been closely linked with ''jineterismo'', the sex tourism industry in Cuba;[13][14] The only independent group allow into the resorts are prostitutes, called ''jineteras''.[15] According to Elisa Facio, the government turns "a blind eye in hopes the dollars ''jineteras'' earned would help overcome the Revolution's worst economic crisis.Facio, Elisa. During the Special Period, ''Global Development Studies'', I, 3-4 (Winter 1998-Spring 1999), 57-78. Republished in ''DES: A Scholarly Journal of Ethnic Studies'', Volume 1 Number 1, University of Colorado Department of Ethnic Studies.
Tourism remains a key source of income for the Cuban government,[16] and Colin Crawford, of the Andrew Young School of Policy Studies at Georgia State University, suggests that tourist apartheid might become a permanent regression to the pre-revolutionary state of Cuban society. In his view
Saundra Amrhein and Tamara Lush describe the situation as ironic: "That tourism has brought exclusive resorts, segregated hotels and a general playground for foreigners swinging through the island looking for Caribbean romance. Ironically, these are precisely the circumstances the revolution worked 40 years to erase."
★ Crime of Apartheid
★ Human rights in Cuba
1. Racial Politics in Post-revolutionary Cuba, , Mark Q., Sawyer, Cambridge University Press, 2006,
2. Cuba and the Future, , Donald E., Schulz, , 1994,
3. Ethnicity in Contemporary America: A Geographical Appraisal, , Jesse O., McKee, Rowman & Littlefield, 2000,
4. Human Rights Watch. CUBA'S REPRESSIVE MACHINERY: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution, III. IMPEDIMENTS TO HUMAN RIGHTS IN CUBAN LAW, June 1999. ISBN 1-56432-234-3
5. Farah, Douglas. Catering to Foreigners Instead of Cubans Puts Castro on Defensive ''The Washington Post'', August 9, 1992.
6. Cuba's Economy, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
7. ''Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems'', Volume 14, Spring 2004. pp. 120-142.
8. Rennie, David. Cuba 'apartheid' as Castro pulls in the tourists, ''The Daily Telegraph'', 08/06/2002.
9. Norman, Matt. Cuba: New Development, Old Ideology and Rich Cultural Heritage, Roughguides.com, April 1, 2000. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
10. Ternto, Angelo : ''Castro and Cuba : From Revolution To The Present'' p114
11. Hare, Paul. U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Latin America and the Caribbean, ''Revista: Harvard Review of Latin America'', David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University, Spring 2005.
12. http://www.miami.com/mld/elnuevo/news/world/cuba/16032860.htm Cuba: dólares ahondan las diferencias de clase El Nuevo Herald
13. "Jinterísmo, Tourist Apartheid and the State for Itself? Evaluating the Nature, Purpose and Impact of Cuba's Radical Reforms and State Capitalism since 1993", History 362a, Colony, Nation and Diaspora: Cuba and Puerto Rico, course syllabus, Yale University Faculty of History. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
14. A Cultural Primer: Tourist Apartheid & Jineterismo, Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
15. Resources, Planning, and Environmental Management in a Changing Caribbean, , David, Barker, University of the West Indies Press, 2003,
16. "Tourism remained a key source of revenue for the Government. The system of so-called "tourist apartheid" continued, with foreign visitors who paid in hard currency receiving preference over citizens for food, consumer products, and medical services". Cuba's Economy, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
17. Crawford, Colin. , Working Paper No. 04-10, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, October 2004.
★ CUBA'S REPRESSIVE MACHINERY: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution, IX. LABOR RIGHTS, June 1999. ISBN 1-56432-234-3
★ A Cultural Primer: Tourist Apartheid & Jineterismo, Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
★ Facio, Elisa, Toro-Morn, Marua, and Roschelle, Anne R.
★ Karaeulter, Kirk. In Cuba, 2 Worlds Bridged by a Dollar Sign, ''The New York Times'', June 11, 2000.
★ Cuba, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.
★ Background Note: Cuba, United States Department of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, December 2005.
★ Remarks by Adolfo A. Franco, Assistant Administrator for Latin America and the Caribbean, USAID, University of Miami Cuba Transition Seminar, October 17, 2002.
★ Dart, Bob. , ''COX Newspapers'', June 2, 2005.
★ Jacoby, Jeff. The U.S. embargo and Cuba's future, ''Jewish World Review'', March 22, 2002.
★ Martinez, Guillermo I. No more fuel on fire, ''South Florida Sun-Sentinel'', June 15, 2006.
★ Nordlinger, Jay. A Cuba Policy to Cheer, ''National Review'', May 21, 2002.
★ Blazquez, Agustin. Hollywood's Cuban Connection, ''The Washington Dispatch'', February 4, 2003.
★ Calzon, Frank. Should American Taxpayers Subsidize Fidel Castro?, Center for a Free Cuba. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
| Contents |
| History |
| Origins in the Special Period |
| Relaxed afer 1997 |
| Impact |
| See also |
| References |
| External Links |
History
Origins in the Special Period
The policy was precipitated by the economic crisis known in Cuba as "the Special Period" which began in the early 1990s, and the government's resulting need to earn hard currency to make up for lost economic aid from the Soviet Union.Cave, Damien. Tourism apartheid in Cuba, ''Salon.com'', February 6, 2002. Retrieved July 10, 2006. [5][6] "To further isolate international tourism from Cuban society, tourism was to be promoted in enclaves where, as much as possible, tourists would be segregated from Cuban society."[7] "The growing dichotomy was not lost on the average Cuban citizen, and the government tourism policy soon began to be referred to as 'tourism apartheid.'"Espino, María Dolores. , Proceedings of the Annual Meetings of the Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (ASCE), Volume 10, August 3-5, 2000.
In 1992, as Cuba entered the period of severe economic austerity, Cuban dictator Fidel Castro defended the newly instituted policies in a speech to the Cuban National Assembly. He described the moves as an economic necessity that would need to be maintained for as long as the country had a need for foreign currency. According to Castro, the government was "pondering formulas" that would allow Cubans to use some of the tourist facilities as a reward for outstanding work, but believed that giving Cubans access to amenities at the expense of paying foreign tourists would ultimately be a counterproductive move for the economy; "For every five Cubans staying two or three days in one of those hotels, the country would have one less ton of meat to distribute to the people,".
Relaxed afer 1997
Until 1997, Contacts between tourists and Cubans were ''de facto'' outlawed, and Cubans in seen contact with tourists were regarded as potential thieves by police.[8] Global human rights groups complaints, and the upcoming Pope's visit, helped cause an about-face, although such contacts are still frowned upon, with standard harassment such as police identification checks for any Cuban seen in contact with a tourist common. This Is Cuba: An Outlaw Culture Survives, , Ben, Corbett, Westview Press, 2004, [9] Despite the restrictions, average Cubans thrive on Cuba's tourist industry, and many simply see the policy as inevitable.
Impact
The policy had a major impact on the underlying egalitarianism espoused by the Cuban revolution.[10][11]Gunn, Gillian. , Georgetown University Cuba Briefing Paper Series, "Tourist Apartheid", January 1993. Two parallel economies and societies quickly emerged, their demarcation line was represented by access to the newly legalized U.S. dollar. Those having access to dollars through contact with the lucrative tourist industry suddenly found themselves at a distinct financial advantage over professional, industrial and agricultural workers.[12]
Tourist apartheid has been closely linked with ''jineterismo'', the sex tourism industry in Cuba;[13][14] The only independent group allow into the resorts are prostitutes, called ''jineteras''.[15] According to Elisa Facio, the government turns "a blind eye in hopes the dollars ''jineteras'' earned would help overcome the Revolution's worst economic crisis.Facio, Elisa. During the Special Period, ''Global Development Studies'', I, 3-4 (Winter 1998-Spring 1999), 57-78. Republished in ''DES: A Scholarly Journal of Ethnic Studies'', Volume 1 Number 1, University of Colorado Department of Ethnic Studies.
Tourism remains a key source of income for the Cuban government,[16] and Colin Crawford, of the Andrew Young School of Policy Studies at Georgia State University, suggests that tourist apartheid might become a permanent regression to the pre-revolutionary state of Cuban society. In his view
to the extent that the Revolution committed itself to equality of access to natural resources, the new tourist apartheid could, if it becomes an entrenched feature of the society, become Cuba’s new normal. With only 44 years of socialist government and, before that, a period nearly ten times as long of colonial domination, it is not hard to imagine that this could occur... The modern, post-revolutionary Republic of Cuba perhaps moved too far from the individual autonomy side of the property ownership continuum to the collective end for its property regime to continue effectively. Paradoxically, the example of its new tourist apartheid suggests, it now risks swinging back to its original, equally unstable position.[17]
Saundra Amrhein and Tamara Lush describe the situation as ironic: "That tourism has brought exclusive resorts, segregated hotels and a general playground for foreigners swinging through the island looking for Caribbean romance. Ironically, these are precisely the circumstances the revolution worked 40 years to erase."
See also
★ Crime of Apartheid
★ Human rights in Cuba
References
1. Racial Politics in Post-revolutionary Cuba, , Mark Q., Sawyer, Cambridge University Press, 2006,
2. Cuba and the Future, , Donald E., Schulz, , 1994,
3. Ethnicity in Contemporary America: A Geographical Appraisal, , Jesse O., McKee, Rowman & Littlefield, 2000,
4. Human Rights Watch. CUBA'S REPRESSIVE MACHINERY: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution, III. IMPEDIMENTS TO HUMAN RIGHTS IN CUBAN LAW, June 1999. ISBN 1-56432-234-3
5. Farah, Douglas. Catering to Foreigners Instead of Cubans Puts Castro on Defensive ''The Washington Post'', August 9, 1992.
6. Cuba's Economy, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
7. ''Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems'', Volume 14, Spring 2004. pp. 120-142.
8. Rennie, David. Cuba 'apartheid' as Castro pulls in the tourists, ''The Daily Telegraph'', 08/06/2002.
9. Norman, Matt. Cuba: New Development, Old Ideology and Rich Cultural Heritage, Roughguides.com, April 1, 2000. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
10. Ternto, Angelo : ''Castro and Cuba : From Revolution To The Present'' p114
11. Hare, Paul. U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Latin America and the Caribbean, ''Revista: Harvard Review of Latin America'', David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University, Spring 2005.
12. http://www.miami.com/mld/elnuevo/news/world/cuba/16032860.htm Cuba: dólares ahondan las diferencias de clase El Nuevo Herald
13. "Jinterísmo, Tourist Apartheid and the State for Itself? Evaluating the Nature, Purpose and Impact of Cuba's Radical Reforms and State Capitalism since 1993", History 362a, Colony, Nation and Diaspora: Cuba and Puerto Rico, course syllabus, Yale University Faculty of History. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
14. A Cultural Primer: Tourist Apartheid & Jineterismo, Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
15. Resources, Planning, and Environmental Management in a Changing Caribbean, , David, Barker, University of the West Indies Press, 2003,
16. "Tourism remained a key source of revenue for the Government. The system of so-called "tourist apartheid" continued, with foreign visitors who paid in hard currency receiving preference over citizens for food, consumer products, and medical services". Cuba's Economy, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
17. Crawford, Colin. , Working Paper No. 04-10, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, October 2004.
External Links
★ CUBA'S REPRESSIVE MACHINERY: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution, IX. LABOR RIGHTS, June 1999. ISBN 1-56432-234-3
★ A Cultural Primer: Tourist Apartheid & Jineterismo, Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
★ Facio, Elisa, Toro-Morn, Marua, and Roschelle, Anne R.
★ Karaeulter, Kirk. In Cuba, 2 Worlds Bridged by a Dollar Sign, ''The New York Times'', June 11, 2000.
★ Cuba, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.
★ Background Note: Cuba, United States Department of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, December 2005.
★ Remarks by Adolfo A. Franco, Assistant Administrator for Latin America and the Caribbean, USAID, University of Miami Cuba Transition Seminar, October 17, 2002.
★ Dart, Bob. , ''COX Newspapers'', June 2, 2005.
★ Jacoby, Jeff. The U.S. embargo and Cuba's future, ''Jewish World Review'', March 22, 2002.
★ Martinez, Guillermo I. No more fuel on fire, ''South Florida Sun-Sentinel'', June 15, 2006.
★ Nordlinger, Jay. A Cuba Policy to Cheer, ''National Review'', May 21, 2002.
★ Blazquez, Agustin. Hollywood's Cuban Connection, ''The Washington Dispatch'', February 4, 2003.
★ Calzon, Frank. Should American Taxpayers Subsidize Fidel Castro?, Center for a Free Cuba. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
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