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EspañolTRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION
(Redirected from Transcendental meditation)
'Transcendental Meditation®' or 'TM' is a trademarked meditation technique introduced in 1958 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. The Transcendental Meditation technique is practiced for twenty minutes twice a day while sitting with the eyes closed, [1] enabling the mind to "transcend" to a quieter state. [2] The technique is said to be effortless, not involving concentration or contemplation. [3] Research has been done on the effects of this meditation technique on mind and body, ranging from investigating its effects on cardiovascular disease to studying the physiological and psychological correlates of "higher states of consciousness" which practitioners say result from its practice. The technique is said to have been taught to over six million people worldwide. [4]
The Transcendental Meditation technique is one aspect of "Maharishi's Technologies of Consciousness", which are the experiential side of Maharishi Vedic Science. [5]
Maharishi explains that the Transcendental Meditation technique is derived from the ancient Vedic tradition of India. The technique, taught worldwide in a standardized, seven-step procedure, includes two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and a two-hour instruction session given each day for four consecutive days. Personal instruction begins with a ceremony performed by the teacher and concludes with the imparting of the technique to the student. Subsequent sessions continue with further instruction as well as theoretical information on the technique. [6][7]
Medical indexes, such as PubMed, show that over 200 studies have been conducted on the Transcendental Meditation technique. The universities and medical centers where this research has taken place include Harvard Medical School, Yale Medical School, Stanford University, Princeton University, MIT, Purdue University, UCLA, UC Irvine, UC Berkeley, the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan Medical School, and the University of Texas.[8]
Research has described specific physiological effects occurring during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. The first of these studies were published in the early 1970’s in ''Science'',[9] ''American Journal of Physiology'',[10] and ''Scientific American''.[11]
This research found that the Transcendental Meditation technique produced a physiological state that was termed "restful alertness." During the practice of the technique the physiology becomes relaxed, as indicated by significant reductions in respiration, minute ventilation, tidal volume, blood lactate, and significant increases in basal skin resistance, yet EEG measurements showed increased coherence and integration of brain functioning,[12] indicating that the physiology was alert rather than asleep.[13]
Studies suggest that this state of physiology promotes regulation of cortisol and other hormones associated with chronic stress, showing reduced baseline cortisol (a hormone associated with stress) and a healthier regulation of serotonin (a neurotransmitter associated with mood).[14]
A number of studies have reported finding a positive correlation between Transcendental Meditation technique and various health - related conditions, including reduction of high blood pressure,[15] younger biological age,[16] decreased insomnia,[17] reduction of high cholesterol,[18] reduced illness and medical expenditures,[19] decreased outpatient visits,[19] decreased cigarette smoking,[21] decreased alcohol use,[21] and decreased anxiety.[23]
Some studies indicate that regular practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique leads to cumulative effects in the areas of mind , body and behavior .
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has spent more than $21 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease[1]. In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.[24]
The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.[25]
A paper published in 1977 in ''The Lancet'' demonstrated that the Transcendental Meditation technique had no effect on blood pressure in patients[26].
In 2005, the ''American Journal of Cardiology'' published a review of two studies that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure.[27] This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. The review was funded in part by a grant from NIH's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Also in 2005, the American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of hypertension among African-Americans.[28]
In 2006 a study published in the American Medical Association's Archives of Internal Medicine found that coronary heart disease patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education. [29]
The American Heart Association has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 2000, the association's journal ''Stroke'' published a study that found that on average the subjects engaged in daily practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique reduced the thickening of coronary arteries in hypertensive adults, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.[30]The association's journal ''Hypertension'' published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had reduced blood pressure.[31]
Also in 2006 a functional MRI study of 24 patients published in NeuroReport found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the brain's response to pain.[32]
A paper published in the ''Journal of Applied Psychology'' in 1978 found no effect on school grades.[33] A 1985 study in the ''British Journal of Educational Psychology'', and a 1989 study in ''Education'' showed improved academic performance. [34]
[35]
A paper published in 2001 in the journal ''Intelligence'' reported the effects on 362 Taiwanese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping, on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, "fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.[36]
In 2003 a study in the journal ''Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift'' reviewed ten randomized, controlled trials that looked at the effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique on cognitive function. Four trials showed a significant effect on cognitive function, while the remaining trials showed mixed results. Study authors Canter and Ernst noted that the four positive trials used subjects whom had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique and attributed the significant positive results to an expectation effect.[37] The TM teacher Roger Chalmers has disagreed strongly with this conclusion.[38]
A 1971 survey by Leon Otis found that a significant percentage of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique also report feeling anxiety, confusion, and depression.[39] Other researchers have found that the Transcendental Meditation technique has no correlation with these conditions.[40]
According to Maharishi's theory of enlightenment, there are seven major states of consciousness, of which the first three are commonly known. The last three states fulfill the definition of Enlightenment - the ultimate goal of long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique:
# ''Dreamless sleeping state of consciousness''
# ''Dreaming state of consciousness'' (REM)
# ''Waking state of consciousness''
# ''Transcendental Consciousness,'' said to be a fourth major state of consciousness, distinct from waking, sleeping or dreaming. According to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique thought becomes increasingly subtle, until the finest level of thought is reached. From there the mind can further experience the source of thought, or transcend thought, and is no longer bound by thoughts or perceptions but experiences awareness awake to itself alone.This state is said to be an experience of "am-ness", or "Being", the unbounded pure consciousness that is at the source of thoughts and feelings. [41] Maharishi calls this state Transcendental Consciousness, and has said that Transcendental Consciousness is experienced via ''dhyana'', a Sanskrit term which he equates with Transcendental Meditation. [42] While ''dhyana'' is often characterized as involving concentration or contemplation, Transcendental Meditation, according to Maharishi, makes use of the "natural, expansive response of the mind." Maharishi notes that concentration is a mistranslation of ''dhyana'' and that meditation that uses concentration can result in a failure to transcend. [43]
# ''Cosmic Consciousness'', the fifth state, is said to be the state of "enlightenment" which results from alternating the experience of Transcendental Consciousness and activity in our daily lives. Through repeated practice, the nonchanging state of Being in TC becomes permanently maintained along with waking, sleeping and dreaming. This all-inclusive state - "cosmic" - is marked by a peaceful, nonchanging restful state inside while one is actively engaged in the constant change which occurs in life.[44]
# ''God Consciousness'' is said to be the state where the unbounded awareness of Cosmic Consciousness is accompanied by refined sensory perception during waking, sleeping and dreaming - where the full range and mechanics of creation are appreciated at a sublime, subtle level. This perception leads to a devotion and love for creation and its creator.[45]
# ''Unity Consciousness'', the seventh state, is said to be the perception that all aspects of life are nothing but expressions of Being, or pure consciousness. All of the diversity in life, from the gross to the subtle, is seen as the self-interacting dynamics of Being. The outer and inner realities of life are bridged in Unity Consciousness. One sees the Self in all aspects of creation.
Ongoing research since around 1970 has tried to understand scientifically the state of mind and body during the experience of higher states of consciousness as defined above.
While earlier studies focused on physiological effects during meditation, later studies focused on episodes of what became known as "pure" Transcendental Consciousness during practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique, and found several common physiological markers for the state, including reduced breath volume, high alpha EEG coherence, and decreased heart rate, as compared to the remainder of a TM meditation period. [46] [47]
More recently, several studies on individuals who report having experiences of Transcendental Consciousness in activity or sleep (referred to above as "Cosmic Consciousness") have been carried out. A study published in 1997, in the journal "Sleep", found greater alpha and theta EEG power, but no difference in delta EEG power in long-term TM meditators reporting episodes of "higher states of consciousness" during sleep compared to controls. [48] A study published in 2002, in ''Biological Psychology'', found distinct EEG patterns in the 17 long-term meditators as compared to two matched control groups. In addition, using a measure called choice-contingent negative variation, the researchers found that the subjects' brains responded more efficiently during tasks. [49] A followup study on the same three groups of subjects that used content analysis to characterize and classify their subject experiences found that the group reporting an experience of Transcendental Consciousness during activity had unique subjective experiences. This was characterized by an ongoing experience described as "unboundedness." [50]
In 1957, at the end of a festival of "spiritual luminaries" in remembrance of the previous Shankaracharya of the North, Swami Brahmananda Saraswati, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (or simply "Maharishi" to followers) inaugurated a movement to "spiritually regenerate the world." From that point in time, the Transcendental Meditation technique has spread throughout the world.[51] Maharishi's publications during this period include ''Beacon Light of the Himalayas'' (1955),[52] ''Science of Being and Art of Living'' (1963), a translation of, and commentary on, the first six chapters of the Bhagavad-Gita (1965), and the long devotional poem ''Love and God'' (1967). [53]
In the early 1970s, Maharishi launched a "World Plan" to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the world's population, which at that time would have meant 3,600 TM centers throughout the world. Since 1990, Maharishi has coordinated his global activities from his headquarters in the town of Vlodrop in the municipality of Roerdalen in the Netherlands.
Maharishi founded Maharishi University of Management, which began offering classes in 1973 in California and relocated to Fairfield, Iowa, USA, in 1974. He has also founded a number of schools around the world. He inspired the founding of Maharishi Vedic City in southeast Iowa and the Natural Law Party, a group of political parties in many countries, most of which have been dissolved, the U.S. branch having closed on April 30, 2004.[54]
The movement says that more than 6 million people worldwide have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique since its inauguration,[55] including celebrities such as Andy Kaufman, The Beatles, Beach Boys' Mike Love and Al Jardine, jazz musician Charles Lloyd, actor Stephen Collins, radio personality Howard Stern, actor Clint Eastwood, film director David Lynch, inventor and author Itzhak Bentov, Scottish musician Donovan, and actresses Mia Farrow and Heather Graham.[4] For nearly eight years, Deepak Chopra was one of Maharishi's most prominent spokespersons and promoters of Maharishi Ayurveda or alternative medicine.[56] Political leaders who practice TM include Joaquim Chissano [5], former president of Mozambique.
Controversy has developed over the relationship the Transcendental Meditation technique has to religion. Official Transcendental Meditation websites state that the TM technique is a mental technique for deep rest and for contacting what is described as a field of unlimited potential. These sites state that the TM technique does not require faith, belief, or a change in lifestyle to be effective. [6]
On the other hand, Maharishi calls Transcendental Meditation "a path to God", [57] and in his teaching often makes references to "God" or a creator. [58] Transcendental Meditation program websites indicate Maharishi makes no references to the TM technique as a religious practice, although he does describe himself as a spiritual teacher. Kelly Zellers and Pamela Perrewe in their discussion of “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being,” in ''Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance'', describe meditation, yoga, and the TM technique, one form of meditation mentioned, as spiritual and describe all three as coping strategies people may employ in business and in life in general. [59]
Clergy have opposing views when assessing the compatibility of their religions to the TM technique and programs. Cardinal Sin, Archbishop of Manila, believes as he outlines in his 1984 pastoral statement, that the TM perspective conflicts with Christianity. For example, unlike the Christian idea of God - a personal god caring for every individual – Archbishop Sin believes the inner reality one reaches through the TM technique to be impersonal. Man, as described by TM philosophy, is capable of increasing levels of perfection, but is not born in Original sin, a foundation of Christian doctrine. Pain and suffering as redemptive, another foundation of much Christian thought, is lacking in TM theory, according to Cardinal Sin. [7] Archbishop Sin also noted the belief that mantras used in TM are apparent invocations to deities. No information on mantras exists on official TM web sites, probably because the selection of mantras is private.
At the same time, some clergy find the TM technique to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs. These include Rabbi Allan Green who finds Transcendental Meditation and its philosophy to provide insight into his work as a rabbi, [60] and Rabbi Raphael Levine who discovered that TM theory contains many of the same insights found in the teachings of Hebrew Prophets. [8]
Father Adrian Smith, a Catholic priest, describes Transcendental Meditation as compatible with any religion because of pertinence to human nature rather than to religious virtue. [61] Father Basil Pennington, a Cistercian monk, believes that the deepest self described by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as the Absolute is known to Christians, and is the same as "our God of love, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”. [62]
An early controversy on the use of the Transcendental Meditation technique in the schools arose in 1979, when the United States Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the lower court decision in Malnak v. Yogi (592 F.2d 197) that a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, which included the Transcendental Meditation technique, could not be taught in New Jersey public schools because it violated the Establishment Clause [63] of the First Amendment, which creates a wall of separation between church and state. [64] The lower court based the ruling in part on the brief ceremony (known as the "puja") involved in Transcendental Meditation instruction (though an appellate judge disagreed[65]) and also on the fact that the Science of Creative Intelligence dealt with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. Because the ruling centered around a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, and because the Wallace v. Jaffree decision in 1986 allows for quiet time/meditation with a secular purpose, instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique has continued in public charter schools, despite comments like those of sociologist Barry Markovsky, who felt that in teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in the schools, there might be an undercurrent of religion. He labeled this as “stealth religion." [66] [67]
Principals of the public charter schools, Nataki Talibah Schoolhouse in Detroit and the Fletcher-Johnson School in Washington, D.C.,
note that in their views the TM technique is not religious. They point out the benefits of the technique, one of which is to help to relieve stress in their students. [9][10]
Critics suggest that practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation technique and related programs display cult–like tendencies, while research suggests that the technique fosters independent thinking and other qualities that are the opposite of these behaviours.
These so-called cult-like tendencies were noted in Michael A. Persinger's 1980 book ''TM and Cult Mania''. [68] Both ''The Cult Observer'' and ''The Cultic Journal'' have published articles on TM. [69]
In 1987, the Cult Awareness Network held a press conference and demonstration in Washington, D.C., charging that Transcendental Meditation is a cult. Steve Hassan, editor of two books on cults and a former follower of the Rev. Sun Myung Moon, was quoted by the ''Washington Post'' as saying that TM may have cult-like tendencies. [70]
Researcher David Orme-Johnson,[11] a former psychology professor and researcher at Maharishi University of Management who has authored over 100 studies related to the Transcendental Meditation technique, argues that the Transcendental Meditation organization is not a cult. He notes that research shows that the Transcendental Meditation technique produces effects in practitioners that are opposite those found in people who allegedly become involved in cults. He cites research showing greater autonomy, independence, and innovative thought in TM practitioners, as well as increases in creativity, general intelligence and moral reasoning. Cult followers allegedly operate on blind faith, and adherence, usually rigid, to arbitrary rules and authority, whereas the studies Orme-Johnson refers to indicate the ability of TM practitioners to make mature, independent, principle-based judgments.
Orme–Johnson also notes that cults are generally characterized as closed systems, directly opposite to the Transcendental Meditation organization, which submits to the rigors of scientific testing, continues to encourage research by independent universities and research organizations (to date, 209 universities have conducted research on the Transcendental Meditation program), publishes consistently in peer-reviewed journals, and participates actively in scientific conferences worldwide. [12]
'Kropinski v. WPEC'
In a civil suit against the World Plan Executive Council filed in 1985,[71] Robert Kropinski claimed fraud, psychological, physical, and emotional harm as a result of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. The district court dismissed Kropinski's claims concerning intentional tort and negligent infliction of emotional distress, and referred the claims of fraud and negligent infliction of physical and psychological injuries to a jury trial. The jury awarded Robert Kropinski $137,890 in the fraud and negligence claims. The appellate court overturned the award and dismissed Kropinski's claim alleging psychological damage. The claim of fraud and the claim of a physical injury related to his practice of the TM-Sidhi program were remanded to the lower court for retrial, and the parties then settled these remaining claims out of court.[72]
'Butler/Killian vs. MUM'
Two lawsuits were filed as a result of a stabbing at Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa on March 1, 2004[73] The family of the murdered student and a student who was assaulted earlier in the day have sued MUM and the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation. Their separate suits, filed on February 24, 2006, allege that the twice-daily practice of Transcendental Meditation, which the university requires of all students, can be dangerous for people with psychiatric problems. They also charge the university with failing to call the police or take action to protect students from a violent, mentally ill student.[74][75]
Maharishi has taught that the Transcendental Meditation technique allows the mind to contact an underlying field of existence. This underlying field has been characterized by teachers of Transcendental Meditation as being the same as a hypothetical unified field described by physicists.[13] For a short time in the 1980s, the Transcendental Meditation technique was referred to as the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field.
The relationship between the mind and physics is a matter of dispute among physicists. In 1986 Heinz Pagels, who was at the time the executive director of the New York Academy of Science, wrote a letter stating that the philosophical claims of the TM organization willfully distort scientific truth.[76]
In response to what they feel is a high course fee to learn TM, some former TM teachers offer instruction on their own. Other former TM teachers critical of the organization have published what they claim to be TM mantras. ''TM Independent'' says it is their goal to make TM available at an affordable price. ''Natural Stress Relief'' states that the technique they offer is comparable to, but is not, Transcendental Meditation.[77]
The TM organization recommends that the TM technique only be learned from an authorized teacher. [78] The fee in the U.S. is currently $2,500.[79]
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14. MacLean, C.R.K., et al: 1996, "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on adaptive mechanisms: Changes in hormone levels and responses to stress after four months of practice", ''Psychoendrocrinology'' 22, pp. 277-295
15. ''Hypertension 26'': 820–827, 1995
16. ''International Journal of Neuroscience 16'': 53–58, 1982
17. ''Journal of Counseling and Development 64'': 212–215, 1985
18. ''Journal of Human Stress 5'': 24-27, 1979
19. ''The American Journal of Managed Care 3'': 135–144, 1997
20. ''The American Journal of Managed Care 3'': 135–144, 1997
21. ''Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11'': 13–87, 1994
22. ''Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11'': 13–87, 1994
23. ''Journal of Clinical Psychology 45'': 957–974, 1989
24. ''Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds'', ''U.S. Medicine'',Matt Pueschel, July 2000
25. ''NIH Awards Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine''
26. Pollack, A. A., Weber, M. A., Case, D. B., Laragh, J. H. "Limitations of Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of essential hypertension." ''The Lancet'', January 8, 1977, 71-73.
27. ''Long-Term Effects of Stress Reduction on Mortality in Persons >55 Years of Age With Systemic Hypertension'' Schneider RH et al.
28. ''A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year'' Schneider RH et al.
29. ''Effects of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation on Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Subjects With Coronary Heart Disease'', ''Archives of Internal Medicine'', Maura Paul-Labrador et al,, Vol. 166 No. 11, June 12, 2006
30. ''Stroke''. 2000 Mar;31(3):568-73.
31. ''A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans'', Robert H. Schneider et al, ''Hypertension'', 1995, 26: 820-827
32. ''Neuroimaging of meditation's effect on brain reactivity to pain'' Orme-Johnson DW et al.
33. Carsello, C. J. and Creaser, J. W. "Does Transcendental Meditation Training Affect Grades?" Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 644-645.
34. Nidich, S.I. and Nidich, R.J. Increased academic achievement at Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment: A replication study. Education 109: 302–304, 1989.
35. Kember, P. The Transcendental Meditation technique and postgraduate academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology 55: 164–166, 1985.
36. Intelligence (September/October 2001), Vol. 29/5, pp. 419-440
37. ''Canter, P., Ernst, E. (2003) ''The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function—a systematic review of randomised controlled trials'' Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2003 November 28;115(21-22):758-766
38. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/eletters/326/7398/1049#32679
39. Deane H. Shapiro and Roger N. Walsh, editors, Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984), p. 207
40. Herron, Robert E., et al: 1996, “Cost-Effective Hypertension Management: Comparison of Drug Therapies with an Alternative Program,” The American Journal of Managed Care Vol. 11, No. 4, p. 433
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42. ''Enlightenment Online''
43. ''Studies of Advanced Stages of Meditation in the Tibetan Buddhist and Vedic Traditions. I: A Comparison of General Changes'', Hethe House, ''eCAM'', 2006 3(4):513-521
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45. ''God Consciousness and Unity Consciousness: The Highest States of Peace and Fulfillment''
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48. Mason LI, Alexander CN, Travis FT, Marsh G, Orme-Johnson DW, Gackenbach J, Mason DC, Rainforth M, Walton KG. "Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during sleep in long-term practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation program." Sleep. 1997 Feb;20(2):102-10.
49. Travis, F. T., Tecce, J., Arenander, A., & Wallace, R. K. (2002), ''Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states''. ''Biological Psychology'', 61, 293-319
50. Travis, F., Arenander, A., & DuBois, D. (2004). ''Psychological and physiological characteristics of a proposed object-referral/self-referral continuum of self-awareness''. ''Consciousness and Cognition'', 13, 401-420
51. Oates, Robert M. (1976)''Celebrating the Dawn'', New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11815-2
52. [2]
53. [3]
54. ''Natural Law Party''
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57. ''Meditations of Maharishi''. p. 59
58. ''Science of Being and Art of Living'', Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Rev. Ed. 1967, p. 271
59. Zellers, Kelly L., Perrewe, Pamela. “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being”, ''Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance'', M.E. Sharp, December 2002.
60. Vesely,Carolin, “Its All in Your Mind” Winnipeg Free Press, March 21, 2006.
61. Smith, Adrian B. A Key to the Kingdom of Heaven: A Christian Understanding of Transcendental Meditation. Temple House Books, 1993.
62. Pennington, Basil. “TM and Christian Prayer”, Daily We Touch Him: Practical Religious Experiences. Doubleday, 1977:73
63. http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/estabinto.htm
64. Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
65. In his concurring opinion, Judge Adams said that the ceremony didn't violate the Establishment Clause because “(a) the Puja was never performed in a school classroom, or even on government property; (b) it was never performed during school hours, but only on a Sunday; (c) it was performed only once in the case of each student; (d) it was entirely in Sanskrit, with neither the student nor, apparently, the teacher who chanted it, knowing what the foreign words meant. Moreover, the elements of involuntariness present in Engel and Schempp are wholly absent here.” Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
66. ''Man Fails To Fly, Sues Camlot Owner'', ''GTR News Online'', Nancy K. Owens
67. ''The White Plain Journal News'', Joy Victory, May 18, 2004
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72. Kropinski v. WPEC, 853 F.2d 948
73. ''Trouble in transcendental paradise as murder rocks the Maharishi University'', ''The Observer'', May 2, 2004
74. Butler v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa, Central Div., Case No. 06-cv-00072
75. Kilian v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa
76. ''Deepak Chopra'', ''The Skeptics Dictionary'', Robert Carroll
77. ''We Do Not Teach Transcendental Meditation''
78. Must be learned from a qualified teacher
79. ''Course Requirements''
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★ ''Discover the benefits'' - Link to official TM site, includes some scientific study summaries.
★ ''Truth About TM'' - A leading researcher on Transcendental Meditation responds to issues.
★ American Association of Professionals Practicing the Transcendental Meditation Program
★ ''Stress-Free Schools''
★ The Transcendental Meditation technique and ADHD
★ ''Falling Down the TM Rabbit Hole - How TM Really Works, a Critical Opinion'' - Criticism of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and TM by a former TM teacher
★ Meditation Information Network - Web site supporting critical examination of Transcendental Meditation and associated programs. Includes archived newsletters of TM-EX, the Transcendental Meditation Ex-Members Support Group (1990 - 1994).
★ ''Behind the TM Facade'' - Criticizes claims made by the TM organization.
★ ''Research on the Transcendental Meditation Technique''
★ MUMBull - "A critical look at the Maharishi University of Management and other enterprises of the Transcendental Meditation movement."
★ ''Transcendental Meditation'' -- Links at Steven Hassan's "Freedom of Mind Center"
★ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary, Chapters 1-6
★ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation
★ The David Lynch Foundation For Consciousness-Based Education and World Peace
★ June 16, 2006 Transcendental meditation improves blood pressure, insulin resistance
★
★ Geoff Gilpin, ''The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality'', Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
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★ Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)
'Transcendental Meditation®' or 'TM' is a trademarked meditation technique introduced in 1958 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. The Transcendental Meditation technique is practiced for twenty minutes twice a day while sitting with the eyes closed, [1] enabling the mind to "transcend" to a quieter state. [2] The technique is said to be effortless, not involving concentration or contemplation. [3] Research has been done on the effects of this meditation technique on mind and body, ranging from investigating its effects on cardiovascular disease to studying the physiological and psychological correlates of "higher states of consciousness" which practitioners say result from its practice. The technique is said to have been taught to over six million people worldwide. [4]
The Transcendental Meditation technique is one aspect of "Maharishi's Technologies of Consciousness", which are the experiential side of Maharishi Vedic Science. [5]
Procedure
Maharishi explains that the Transcendental Meditation technique is derived from the ancient Vedic tradition of India. The technique, taught worldwide in a standardized, seven-step procedure, includes two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and a two-hour instruction session given each day for four consecutive days. Personal instruction begins with a ceremony performed by the teacher and concludes with the imparting of the technique to the student. Subsequent sessions continue with further instruction as well as theoretical information on the technique. [6][7]
Research on the Transcendental Meditation technique
Medical indexes, such as PubMed, show that over 200 studies have been conducted on the Transcendental Meditation technique. The universities and medical centers where this research has taken place include Harvard Medical School, Yale Medical School, Stanford University, Princeton University, MIT, Purdue University, UCLA, UC Irvine, UC Berkeley, the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan Medical School, and the University of Texas.[8]
Effects on the physiology
Research has described specific physiological effects occurring during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. The first of these studies were published in the early 1970’s in ''Science'',[9] ''American Journal of Physiology'',[10] and ''Scientific American''.[11]
This research found that the Transcendental Meditation technique produced a physiological state that was termed "restful alertness." During the practice of the technique the physiology becomes relaxed, as indicated by significant reductions in respiration, minute ventilation, tidal volume, blood lactate, and significant increases in basal skin resistance, yet EEG measurements showed increased coherence and integration of brain functioning,[12] indicating that the physiology was alert rather than asleep.[13]
Studies suggest that this state of physiology promotes regulation of cortisol and other hormones associated with chronic stress, showing reduced baseline cortisol (a hormone associated with stress) and a healthier regulation of serotonin (a neurotransmitter associated with mood).[14]
Range of studies
A number of studies have reported finding a positive correlation between Transcendental Meditation technique and various health - related conditions, including reduction of high blood pressure,[15] younger biological age,[16] decreased insomnia,[17] reduction of high cholesterol,[18] reduced illness and medical expenditures,[19] decreased outpatient visits,[19] decreased cigarette smoking,[21] decreased alcohol use,[21] and decreased anxiety.[23]
Some studies indicate that regular practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique leads to cumulative effects in the areas of mind , body and behavior .
Research funding from the NIH
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has spent more than $21 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease[1]. In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.[24]
The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.[25]
Research in medical journals
A paper published in 1977 in ''The Lancet'' demonstrated that the Transcendental Meditation technique had no effect on blood pressure in patients[26].
In 2005, the ''American Journal of Cardiology'' published a review of two studies that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure.[27] This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. The review was funded in part by a grant from NIH's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Also in 2005, the American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of hypertension among African-Americans.[28]
In 2006 a study published in the American Medical Association's Archives of Internal Medicine found that coronary heart disease patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education. [29]
The American Heart Association has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 2000, the association's journal ''Stroke'' published a study that found that on average the subjects engaged in daily practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique reduced the thickening of coronary arteries in hypertensive adults, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.[30]The association's journal ''Hypertension'' published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had reduced blood pressure.[31]
Also in 2006 a functional MRI study of 24 patients published in NeuroReport found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the brain's response to pain.[32]
Research on cognitive function
A paper published in the ''Journal of Applied Psychology'' in 1978 found no effect on school grades.[33] A 1985 study in the ''British Journal of Educational Psychology'', and a 1989 study in ''Education'' showed improved academic performance. [34]
[35]
A paper published in 2001 in the journal ''Intelligence'' reported the effects on 362 Taiwanese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping, on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, "fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.[36]
In 2003 a study in the journal ''Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift'' reviewed ten randomized, controlled trials that looked at the effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique on cognitive function. Four trials showed a significant effect on cognitive function, while the remaining trials showed mixed results. Study authors Canter and Ernst noted that the four positive trials used subjects whom had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique and attributed the significant positive results to an expectation effect.[37] The TM teacher Roger Chalmers has disagreed strongly with this conclusion.[38]
A 1971 survey by Leon Otis found that a significant percentage of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique also report feeling anxiety, confusion, and depression.[39] Other researchers have found that the Transcendental Meditation technique has no correlation with these conditions.[40]
Theory of consciousness
Maharishi's theory of enlightenment
According to Maharishi's theory of enlightenment, there are seven major states of consciousness, of which the first three are commonly known. The last three states fulfill the definition of Enlightenment - the ultimate goal of long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique:
# ''Dreamless sleeping state of consciousness''
# ''Dreaming state of consciousness'' (REM)
# ''Waking state of consciousness''
# ''Transcendental Consciousness,'' said to be a fourth major state of consciousness, distinct from waking, sleeping or dreaming. According to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique thought becomes increasingly subtle, until the finest level of thought is reached. From there the mind can further experience the source of thought, or transcend thought, and is no longer bound by thoughts or perceptions but experiences awareness awake to itself alone.This state is said to be an experience of "am-ness", or "Being", the unbounded pure consciousness that is at the source of thoughts and feelings. [41] Maharishi calls this state Transcendental Consciousness, and has said that Transcendental Consciousness is experienced via ''dhyana'', a Sanskrit term which he equates with Transcendental Meditation. [42] While ''dhyana'' is often characterized as involving concentration or contemplation, Transcendental Meditation, according to Maharishi, makes use of the "natural, expansive response of the mind." Maharishi notes that concentration is a mistranslation of ''dhyana'' and that meditation that uses concentration can result in a failure to transcend. [43]
# ''Cosmic Consciousness'', the fifth state, is said to be the state of "enlightenment" which results from alternating the experience of Transcendental Consciousness and activity in our daily lives. Through repeated practice, the nonchanging state of Being in TC becomes permanently maintained along with waking, sleeping and dreaming. This all-inclusive state - "cosmic" - is marked by a peaceful, nonchanging restful state inside while one is actively engaged in the constant change which occurs in life.[44]
# ''God Consciousness'' is said to be the state where the unbounded awareness of Cosmic Consciousness is accompanied by refined sensory perception during waking, sleeping and dreaming - where the full range and mechanics of creation are appreciated at a sublime, subtle level. This perception leads to a devotion and love for creation and its creator.[45]
# ''Unity Consciousness'', the seventh state, is said to be the perception that all aspects of life are nothing but expressions of Being, or pure consciousness. All of the diversity in life, from the gross to the subtle, is seen as the self-interacting dynamics of Being. The outer and inner realities of life are bridged in Unity Consciousness. One sees the Self in all aspects of creation.
Research on "higher states of consciousness"
Ongoing research since around 1970 has tried to understand scientifically the state of mind and body during the experience of higher states of consciousness as defined above.
While earlier studies focused on physiological effects during meditation, later studies focused on episodes of what became known as "pure" Transcendental Consciousness during practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique, and found several common physiological markers for the state, including reduced breath volume, high alpha EEG coherence, and decreased heart rate, as compared to the remainder of a TM meditation period. [46] [47]
More recently, several studies on individuals who report having experiences of Transcendental Consciousness in activity or sleep (referred to above as "Cosmic Consciousness") have been carried out. A study published in 1997, in the journal "Sleep", found greater alpha and theta EEG power, but no difference in delta EEG power in long-term TM meditators reporting episodes of "higher states of consciousness" during sleep compared to controls. [48] A study published in 2002, in ''Biological Psychology'', found distinct EEG patterns in the 17 long-term meditators as compared to two matched control groups. In addition, using a measure called choice-contingent negative variation, the researchers found that the subjects' brains responded more efficiently during tasks. [49] A followup study on the same three groups of subjects that used content analysis to characterize and classify their subject experiences found that the group reporting an experience of Transcendental Consciousness during activity had unique subjective experiences. This was characterized by an ongoing experience described as "unboundedness." [50]
History
In 1957, at the end of a festival of "spiritual luminaries" in remembrance of the previous Shankaracharya of the North, Swami Brahmananda Saraswati, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (or simply "Maharishi" to followers) inaugurated a movement to "spiritually regenerate the world." From that point in time, the Transcendental Meditation technique has spread throughout the world.[51] Maharishi's publications during this period include ''Beacon Light of the Himalayas'' (1955),[52] ''Science of Being and Art of Living'' (1963), a translation of, and commentary on, the first six chapters of the Bhagavad-Gita (1965), and the long devotional poem ''Love and God'' (1967). [53]
In the early 1970s, Maharishi launched a "World Plan" to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the world's population, which at that time would have meant 3,600 TM centers throughout the world. Since 1990, Maharishi has coordinated his global activities from his headquarters in the town of Vlodrop in the municipality of Roerdalen in the Netherlands.
Maharishi founded Maharishi University of Management, which began offering classes in 1973 in California and relocated to Fairfield, Iowa, USA, in 1974. He has also founded a number of schools around the world. He inspired the founding of Maharishi Vedic City in southeast Iowa and the Natural Law Party, a group of political parties in many countries, most of which have been dissolved, the U.S. branch having closed on April 30, 2004.[54]
The movement says that more than 6 million people worldwide have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique since its inauguration,[55] including celebrities such as Andy Kaufman, The Beatles, Beach Boys' Mike Love and Al Jardine, jazz musician Charles Lloyd, actor Stephen Collins, radio personality Howard Stern, actor Clint Eastwood, film director David Lynch, inventor and author Itzhak Bentov, Scottish musician Donovan, and actresses Mia Farrow and Heather Graham.[4] For nearly eight years, Deepak Chopra was one of Maharishi's most prominent spokespersons and promoters of Maharishi Ayurveda or alternative medicine.[56] Political leaders who practice TM include Joaquim Chissano [5], former president of Mozambique.
Transcendental Meditation controversies
Relationship to religion and spirituality
Controversy has developed over the relationship the Transcendental Meditation technique has to religion. Official Transcendental Meditation websites state that the TM technique is a mental technique for deep rest and for contacting what is described as a field of unlimited potential. These sites state that the TM technique does not require faith, belief, or a change in lifestyle to be effective. [6]
On the other hand, Maharishi calls Transcendental Meditation "a path to God", [57] and in his teaching often makes references to "God" or a creator. [58] Transcendental Meditation program websites indicate Maharishi makes no references to the TM technique as a religious practice, although he does describe himself as a spiritual teacher. Kelly Zellers and Pamela Perrewe in their discussion of “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being,” in ''Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance'', describe meditation, yoga, and the TM technique, one form of meditation mentioned, as spiritual and describe all three as coping strategies people may employ in business and in life in general. [59]
Clergy have opposing views when assessing the compatibility of their religions to the TM technique and programs. Cardinal Sin, Archbishop of Manila, believes as he outlines in his 1984 pastoral statement, that the TM perspective conflicts with Christianity. For example, unlike the Christian idea of God - a personal god caring for every individual – Archbishop Sin believes the inner reality one reaches through the TM technique to be impersonal. Man, as described by TM philosophy, is capable of increasing levels of perfection, but is not born in Original sin, a foundation of Christian doctrine. Pain and suffering as redemptive, another foundation of much Christian thought, is lacking in TM theory, according to Cardinal Sin. [7] Archbishop Sin also noted the belief that mantras used in TM are apparent invocations to deities. No information on mantras exists on official TM web sites, probably because the selection of mantras is private.
At the same time, some clergy find the TM technique to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs. These include Rabbi Allan Green who finds Transcendental Meditation and its philosophy to provide insight into his work as a rabbi, [60] and Rabbi Raphael Levine who discovered that TM theory contains many of the same insights found in the teachings of Hebrew Prophets. [8]
Father Adrian Smith, a Catholic priest, describes Transcendental Meditation as compatible with any religion because of pertinence to human nature rather than to religious virtue. [61] Father Basil Pennington, a Cistercian monk, believes that the deepest self described by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as the Absolute is known to Christians, and is the same as "our God of love, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”. [62]
An early controversy on the use of the Transcendental Meditation technique in the schools arose in 1979, when the United States Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the lower court decision in Malnak v. Yogi (592 F.2d 197) that a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, which included the Transcendental Meditation technique, could not be taught in New Jersey public schools because it violated the Establishment Clause [63] of the First Amendment, which creates a wall of separation between church and state. [64] The lower court based the ruling in part on the brief ceremony (known as the "puja") involved in Transcendental Meditation instruction (though an appellate judge disagreed[65]) and also on the fact that the Science of Creative Intelligence dealt with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. Because the ruling centered around a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, and because the Wallace v. Jaffree decision in 1986 allows for quiet time/meditation with a secular purpose, instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique has continued in public charter schools, despite comments like those of sociologist Barry Markovsky, who felt that in teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in the schools, there might be an undercurrent of religion. He labeled this as “stealth religion." [66] [67]
Principals of the public charter schools, Nataki Talibah Schoolhouse in Detroit and the Fletcher-Johnson School in Washington, D.C.,
note that in their views the TM technique is not religious. They point out the benefits of the technique, one of which is to help to relieve stress in their students. [9][10]
Cult issues
Critics suggest that practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation technique and related programs display cult–like tendencies, while research suggests that the technique fosters independent thinking and other qualities that are the opposite of these behaviours.
These so-called cult-like tendencies were noted in Michael A. Persinger's 1980 book ''TM and Cult Mania''. [68] Both ''The Cult Observer'' and ''The Cultic Journal'' have published articles on TM. [69]
In 1987, the Cult Awareness Network held a press conference and demonstration in Washington, D.C., charging that Transcendental Meditation is a cult. Steve Hassan, editor of two books on cults and a former follower of the Rev. Sun Myung Moon, was quoted by the ''Washington Post'' as saying that TM may have cult-like tendencies. [70]
Researcher David Orme-Johnson,[11] a former psychology professor and researcher at Maharishi University of Management who has authored over 100 studies related to the Transcendental Meditation technique, argues that the Transcendental Meditation organization is not a cult. He notes that research shows that the Transcendental Meditation technique produces effects in practitioners that are opposite those found in people who allegedly become involved in cults. He cites research showing greater autonomy, independence, and innovative thought in TM practitioners, as well as increases in creativity, general intelligence and moral reasoning. Cult followers allegedly operate on blind faith, and adherence, usually rigid, to arbitrary rules and authority, whereas the studies Orme-Johnson refers to indicate the ability of TM practitioners to make mature, independent, principle-based judgments.
Orme–Johnson also notes that cults are generally characterized as closed systems, directly opposite to the Transcendental Meditation organization, which submits to the rigors of scientific testing, continues to encourage research by independent universities and research organizations (to date, 209 universities have conducted research on the Transcendental Meditation program), publishes consistently in peer-reviewed journals, and participates actively in scientific conferences worldwide. [12]
Lawsuits
'Kropinski v. WPEC'
In a civil suit against the World Plan Executive Council filed in 1985,[71] Robert Kropinski claimed fraud, psychological, physical, and emotional harm as a result of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. The district court dismissed Kropinski's claims concerning intentional tort and negligent infliction of emotional distress, and referred the claims of fraud and negligent infliction of physical and psychological injuries to a jury trial. The jury awarded Robert Kropinski $137,890 in the fraud and negligence claims. The appellate court overturned the award and dismissed Kropinski's claim alleging psychological damage. The claim of fraud and the claim of a physical injury related to his practice of the TM-Sidhi program were remanded to the lower court for retrial, and the parties then settled these remaining claims out of court.[72]
'Butler/Killian vs. MUM'
Two lawsuits were filed as a result of a stabbing at Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa on March 1, 2004[73] The family of the murdered student and a student who was assaulted earlier in the day have sued MUM and the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation. Their separate suits, filed on February 24, 2006, allege that the twice-daily practice of Transcendental Meditation, which the university requires of all students, can be dangerous for people with psychiatric problems. They also charge the university with failing to call the police or take action to protect students from a violent, mentally ill student.[74][75]
Consciousness and the unified field
Maharishi has taught that the Transcendental Meditation technique allows the mind to contact an underlying field of existence. This underlying field has been characterized by teachers of Transcendental Meditation as being the same as a hypothetical unified field described by physicists.[13] For a short time in the 1980s, the Transcendental Meditation technique was referred to as the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field.
The relationship between the mind and physics is a matter of dispute among physicists. In 1986 Heinz Pagels, who was at the time the executive director of the New York Academy of Science, wrote a letter stating that the philosophical claims of the TM organization willfully distort scientific truth.[76]
Issue of cost
In response to what they feel is a high course fee to learn TM, some former TM teachers offer instruction on their own. Other former TM teachers critical of the organization have published what they claim to be TM mantras. ''TM Independent'' says it is their goal to make TM available at an affordable price. ''Natural Stress Relief'' states that the technique they offer is comparable to, but is not, Transcendental Meditation.[77]
The TM organization recommends that the TM technique only be learned from an authorized teacher. [78] The fee in the U.S. is currently $2,500.[79]
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15. ''Hypertension 26'': 820–827, 1995
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25. ''NIH Awards Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine''
26. Pollack, A. A., Weber, M. A., Case, D. B., Laragh, J. H. "Limitations of Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of essential hypertension." ''The Lancet'', January 8, 1977, 71-73.
27. ''Long-Term Effects of Stress Reduction on Mortality in Persons >55 Years of Age With Systemic Hypertension'' Schneider RH et al.
28. ''A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year'' Schneider RH et al.
29. ''Effects of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation on Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Subjects With Coronary Heart Disease'', ''Archives of Internal Medicine'', Maura Paul-Labrador et al,, Vol. 166 No. 11, June 12, 2006
30. ''Stroke''. 2000 Mar;31(3):568-73.
31. ''A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans'', Robert H. Schneider et al, ''Hypertension'', 1995, 26: 820-827
32. ''Neuroimaging of meditation's effect on brain reactivity to pain'' Orme-Johnson DW et al.
33. Carsello, C. J. and Creaser, J. W. "Does Transcendental Meditation Training Affect Grades?" Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 644-645.
34. Nidich, S.I. and Nidich, R.J. Increased academic achievement at Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment: A replication study. Education 109: 302–304, 1989.
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36. Intelligence (September/October 2001), Vol. 29/5, pp. 419-440
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38. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/eletters/326/7398/1049#32679
39. Deane H. Shapiro and Roger N. Walsh, editors, Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984), p. 207
40. Herron, Robert E., et al: 1996, “Cost-Effective Hypertension Management: Comparison of Drug Therapies with an Alternative Program,” The American Journal of Managed Care Vol. 11, No. 4, p. 433
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45. ''God Consciousness and Unity Consciousness: The Highest States of Peace and Fulfillment''
46. Badawi K, Wallace RK, Orme-Johnson D, Rouzere AM. "Electrophysiologic characteristics of respiratory suspension periods occurring during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation Program." Psychosomatic Medicine 1984 May-Jun;46(3):267-76
47. Travis F, Wallace RK. "Autonomic patterns during respiratory suspensions: possible markers of Transcendental Consciousness." Psychophysiology. 1997 Jan;34(1):39-46
48. Mason LI, Alexander CN, Travis FT, Marsh G, Orme-Johnson DW, Gackenbach J, Mason DC, Rainforth M, Walton KG. "Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during sleep in long-term practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation program." Sleep. 1997 Feb;20(2):102-10.
49. Travis, F. T., Tecce, J., Arenander, A., & Wallace, R. K. (2002), ''Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states''. ''Biological Psychology'', 61, 293-319
50. Travis, F., Arenander, A., & DuBois, D. (2004). ''Psychological and physiological characteristics of a proposed object-referral/self-referral continuum of self-awareness''. ''Consciousness and Cognition'', 13, 401-420
51. Oates, Robert M. (1976)''Celebrating the Dawn'', New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11815-2
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57. ''Meditations of Maharishi''. p. 59
58. ''Science of Being and Art of Living'', Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Rev. Ed. 1967, p. 271
59. Zellers, Kelly L., Perrewe, Pamela. “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being”, ''Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance'', M.E. Sharp, December 2002.
60. Vesely,Carolin, “Its All in Your Mind” Winnipeg Free Press, March 21, 2006.
61. Smith, Adrian B. A Key to the Kingdom of Heaven: A Christian Understanding of Transcendental Meditation. Temple House Books, 1993.
62. Pennington, Basil. “TM and Christian Prayer”, Daily We Touch Him: Practical Religious Experiences. Doubleday, 1977:73
63. http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/estabinto.htm
64. Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
65. In his concurring opinion, Judge Adams said that the ceremony didn't violate the Establishment Clause because “(a) the Puja was never performed in a school classroom, or even on government property; (b) it was never performed during school hours, but only on a Sunday; (c) it was performed only once in the case of each student; (d) it was entirely in Sanskrit, with neither the student nor, apparently, the teacher who chanted it, knowing what the foreign words meant. Moreover, the elements of involuntariness present in Engel and Schempp are wholly absent here.” Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
66. ''Man Fails To Fly, Sues Camlot Owner'', ''GTR News Online'', Nancy K. Owens
67. ''The White Plain Journal News'', Joy Victory, May 18, 2004
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71. United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Civil Suit #85-2848, 1986
72. Kropinski v. WPEC, 853 F.2d 948
73. ''Trouble in transcendental paradise as murder rocks the Maharishi University'', ''The Observer'', May 2, 2004
74. Butler v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa, Central Div., Case No. 06-cv-00072
75. Kilian v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa
76. ''Deepak Chopra'', ''The Skeptics Dictionary'', Robert Carroll
77. ''We Do Not Teach Transcendental Meditation''
78. Must be learned from a qualified teacher
79. ''Course Requirements''
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External links
★ ''Discover the benefits'' - Link to official TM site, includes some scientific study summaries.
★ ''Truth About TM'' - A leading researcher on Transcendental Meditation responds to issues.
★ American Association of Professionals Practicing the Transcendental Meditation Program
★ ''Stress-Free Schools''
★ The Transcendental Meditation technique and ADHD
★ ''Falling Down the TM Rabbit Hole - How TM Really Works, a Critical Opinion'' - Criticism of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and TM by a former TM teacher
★ Meditation Information Network - Web site supporting critical examination of Transcendental Meditation and associated programs. Includes archived newsletters of TM-EX, the Transcendental Meditation Ex-Members Support Group (1990 - 1994).
★ ''Behind the TM Facade'' - Criticizes claims made by the TM organization.
★ ''Research on the Transcendental Meditation Technique''
★ MUMBull - "A critical look at the Maharishi University of Management and other enterprises of the Transcendental Meditation movement."
★ ''Transcendental Meditation'' -- Links at Steven Hassan's "Freedom of Mind Center"
Further reading
★ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary, Chapters 1-6
★ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation
★ The David Lynch Foundation For Consciousness-Based Education and World Peace
★ June 16, 2006 Transcendental meditation improves blood pressure, insulin resistance
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★ Geoff Gilpin, ''The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality'', Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
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★ Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)
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