TURKIC LANGUAGES

The 'Turkic languages' constitute a language family of some thirty languages, spoken across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are traditionally considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.^[2]
Turkic languages are spoken by some 180 million people as a native language; and the total number of Turkic speakers is about 200 million, including speakers as a second language. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper, or Anatolian Turkish, the speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers.

Contents

Characteristics

History

Early written records

Geographical expansion and development

Classification

Members

Vocabulary comparison

References

Further reading

See also

External links

Characteristics

The characteristic features of the Turkic languages are vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of noun classes or grammatical gender. Subject Object Verb word order is universal within the family. All of these distinguishing characteristics are shared with the Mongolic and Tungusic language families, as well as with the Korean language, which are by some linguists considered to be genetically linked with the Turkic languages in the proposed Altaic language family.

History

Geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia

Distribution of Altaic languages across Eurasia

Early written records

The first established records of the Turkic languages are the 8th century Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The ''Compendium of the Turkic Dialects'' ( ''Divânü Lügati't-Türk''), written during the 11th century by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The ''Compendium'' is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.^[3]
The Codex Cumanicus (12th - 13th centuries) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to 13th - 14th centuries.

Geographical expansion and development

With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th - 11th centuries), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, stretching from Siberia (the Sakha Republic) to the Mediterranean (Seljuk Turks). Various elements from the Turkic languages have passed into Hungarian, Persian, Urdu, Russian, Chinese and to a lesser extent, Arabic.^[4]

Classification

Number of native speakers in the Turkic language family

For centuries, the Turkic speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages.^[5] This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The genetic classification of the Turkic languages commonly followed today is the one by Samoilovich (1922) (mainly based on the development of
★ d). However, there are many details for which debate is still ongoing.
The Turkic languages may uncontroversially be divided into six branches:
#Southwestern (Oghuz)
#Northwestern (Kypchak)
#Southeastern (Uzbek, Uyghur)
#Northeastern (Siberian Turkic)
#Oghur-Turkic
#Arghu Turkic
With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as 'West Turkic', the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kypchak and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as 'East Turkic'.^[6]
Geographically and linguistically, the languages of Southwestern, Northwestern, and Southeastern subgroup belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.

Southwestern Turkic (Oghuz) languages

 Turkish Group 
 Azerbaijani Group 
 Turkmen Group 
 Others 

Northwestern Turkic (Kypchak) languages

 Kypchak-Bolgar 
 Kypchak-Cuman 
 Kazakh-Nogay 

Members

★ Proto-Turkic

★
★ Southwestern (Oghuz)

★
★
★ Pecheneg (extinct)

★
★
★ Western

★
★
★
★ Turkish

★
★
★
★ Azerbaijani

★
★
★
★ Gagauz

★
★
★
★ Ottoman Turkish (extinct)

★
★
★ Eastern

★
★
★
★ Turkmen

★
★
★
★ Khorasani Turkish

★
★
★ Southern

★
★
★
★ Afshar

★
★
★
★ Qashqai

★
★
★
★ Salar

★
★
★ Crimean Tatar¹

★
★
★ Urum¹

★
★ Northwestern (Kypchak)

★
★
★ Kipchak (extinct)

★
★
★ Western

★
★
★
★ Karachay-Balkar

★
★
★
★ Kumyk

★
★
★
★ Karaim

★
★
★
★ Kypchak-Cuman (Kypchak-Oghuz, Ponto-Caspian) languages

★
★
★
★
★ Cuman (extinct)

★
★
★
★
★ Krymchak

★
★
★ Northern

★
★
★
★ Kypchak-Bolgar languages

★
★
★
★
★ Tatar

★
★
★
★
★ Bashkir

★
★
★
★
★ Baraba

★
★
★ Southern (Aralo-Kaspian)

★
★
★
★ Kypchak-Nogay languages

★
★
★
★
★ Kazakh

★
★
★
★
★ Karakalpak

★
★
★
★
★ Nogay

★
★
★
★ Kyrgyz-Kypchak group

★
★
★
★
★ Kyrgyz

★
★
★
★
★ Altay

★
★
★ Crimean Tatar¹

★
★
★ Urum¹

★
★ Southeastern (Uyghur, Chagatay, Karluk)

★
★
★ Western (Uzbek)

★
★
★
★ Uzbek

★
★
★ Eastern (Uyghur)

★
★
★
★ Old Turkic (extinct)

★
★
★
★ Chagatay (extinct)

★
★
★
★ Uyghur

★
★
★
★
★ Aini²

★
★
★
★ Lop

★
★
★
★ Ili Turki

★
★ Northeastern (Siberian Turkic)

★
★
★ Northern

★
★
★
★ Sakha / Yakut

★
★
★
★ Dolgan

★
★
★ Southern

★
★
★
★ Tuvan

★
★
★
★ Khakas

★
★
★
★ Shor

★
★
★
★ Fuyü Gïrgïs

★
★
★
★ Chulym

★
★
★
★ Tofa

★
★
★
★ Western Yugur (Yellow Uyghur)

★
★ Oghur-Turkic

★
★
★ Khazar (extinct)

★
★
★ Turkic Avar (extinct)

★
★
★ Bolgar (extinct)

★
★
★ Hunnic (extinct)

★
★
★ Chuvash

★
★ Arghu Turkic

★
★
★ Khalaj³
¹Crimean Tatar and Urum are historically Kypchak languages, but have been so heavily influenced by Oghuz languages that it is difficult to classify them definitively as either Oghuz or Kypchak.
²Aini is a mixed language with Uyghur grammar and Persian vocabulary, and is spoken exclusively by adult men, almost as a cryptolect.
³Khalaj is surrounded by Oghuz languages, but exhibits a number of features that classify it as non-Oghuz.

Vocabulary comparison

The following is a brief comparison cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Note that empty cells do not imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather the word is formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the rest of the words in the row. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

		'Old Turkic'	'Turkish'	'Azeri'	'Turkmen'	'Tatar'	'Kazakh'	'Kyrgyz'	'Uzbek'	'Uyghur'	'Sakha/Yakut'	'Chuvash'
''Persons''	Father/Ancestor	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ota	Ata;
	Mother	Ana	Anne	Ana	Ene	Ana	Ana	Ene	Ona	Ana		An'n
	Son	O'gul	Oğul	Oğul	Oğul	(O'g)ul	Ul	Uul	O'gil	Oghul	Uol	Yvul
	Man	Er(kek)	Erkek/Adam	Kişi	Erkek	Ir	Er/Erkek	Erkek	Erkak	Er	Er	Ar
	Girl	Kyz	Kız	Qız	Gyz	Kız	Qız	Kız	Qiz	Qiz	Ky:s	Xe'r
	Person	Kiši	Kişi	Adam	Kişi	Keše	Kisi	Kishi	Kishi	Kishi	Kihi
	Bride	Kelin	Gelin	Gəlin	Geli:n	Kilen	Kelin	Kelin	Kelin	Kelin	Kylyn	Kilen
	Mother-in-law		Kaynana	Qaynana	Gayın ene	Kayınana	Qayın ene	Kaynene	Qayın ona	Qeyinana
''Body parts''	Heart	Jürek	Yürek	Ürək	Ýürek	Yorak	Jürek	Jürök	Yurak	Yürek	Süreq
	Blood	Qan	Kan	Qan	Ga:n	Kan	Qan	Kan	Qon	Qan	Qa:n	Jon
	Head	Baš	Baş	Baş	Baş	Baš	Bas	Bash	Bosh	Baş	Bas	Puš
	Hair	Qıl	Tüy/Kıl	Tük/Qıl	Qyl	Kıl	Qıl	Kıl	Tuk	Qil	Kıl	Xe'le'r
	Eye	Köz	Göz	Göz	Göz	Küz	Köz	Köz	Ko'z	Köz	Kos	Kör
	Eyelash	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kiprik	Kirpik	Kerfek	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kiprik	Kirpik	Kirbi:	Xurbuk
	Ear	Qulqaq	Kulak	Qulaq	Gulak	Kolak	Qulaq	Kulak	Quloq	Qulaq	Gulka:k	Xo'lga
	Nose	Burun	Burun	Burun	Burun	Boryn	Murın	Murun	Burun	Burun	Murun
	Arm	Qol	Kol	Qol	Gol	Kul	Qol	Kol	Qo'l		Qol	Xol
	Hand	El(ig)	El	Əl	El		Alaqan	Alakan		Qol	Ili:	Ala'
	Finger	Barmak	Parmak	Barmaq	Barmak	Barmak	Barmaq	Barmak	Barmoq	Barmaq
	Fingernail	Tyrnaq	Tırnak	Dırnaq	Dyrnaq	Tyrnak	Tırnaq	Tırnak	Tirnoq	Tirnaq	Tynyraq
	Knee	Tiz	Diz	Diz	Dy:z	Tez	Tize	Tize	Tizza	Tiz	Tüsäχ
	Calf	Baltyr	Baldır	Baldır	Baldyr	Baltyr	Baldır	Baldır	Boldyr	Baldir	Ballyr
	Foot	Adaq	Ayak	Ayaq	Aýaq	Ajak	Ayaq	Ayak	Oyoq	Ayaq	Ataq
	Belly	Qaryn	Karın	Qarın	Garyn	Qaryn	Qarın	Karın	Qorin	Qerin	Qaryn	Xyra'm
''Animals''	Horse	At	At	At	At	At	At	At	Ot	At	At	Ut
	Cattle	Siyir	Sığır/Mal	Mal-qara	Sygyr	Sıyer	Sïır	Sıyır(Southern)	Sigir	Siyir
	Dog	Yt	İt	İt	It	Et	Ït	It	It	It	Yt	Jyda
	Fish	Balyq	Balık	Balıq	Balyk	Balyq	Balıq	Balık	Baliq	Beliq	Balyk	Pola'
	Louse	Bit	Bit	Bit	Bit	Bet	Bït	Bit	Bit	Pit	Byt	Pyjda
''Other nouns''	House	Ev	Ev	Ev	Öý	Öy	Üy	Üy	Uy	Öy		Av
	Tent	Otag	Otağ/Çadır	Çadır	Otaq/Chadyr		Otaw	Çatır	Otoq/Chodir	Otaq	Otu:
	Way	Yol	Yol	Yol	Yo:l	Yul	Jol	Jol	Yo'l	Yol	Suol	Sol
	Bridge	Köprüq	Köprü	Körpü	Köpri	Küpar	Köpir	Köpürö	Ko'prik	Kövrük	Kürpe
	Arrow	Oq	Ok	Ox	Ok	Uk	Oq	Ok	O'q	Oq	Oχ	Ugu
	Fire	Ot	Od	Od	Ot	Ut	Ot	Ot	O't	Ot	Uot	Vot
	Ash	Kül	Kül	Kül	Kül	Köl	Kül	Kül	Kul	Kül	Kül	Kö'l
	Water	Suv	Su	Su	Suw	Syw	Sw	Suu	Suv	Su	Ui	Syv
	Ship	Kemi	Gemi	Gəmi	Gämi	Kimä	Keme	Keme	Kema	keme		Kim
	Lake	Köl	Göl	Göl	Köl	Kül	Köl	Köl	Ko'l	Köl	Küöl
	Sun/Day	Küneš	Güneş/Gün	Günəş/Gün	Gün	Kojaš	Kün	Kün	Quyosh/Kun	Kün	Kün	Xövel
	Cloud	Bulut	Bulut	Bulud	Bulut	Bolyt	Bult	Bulut	Bulut	Bulut	Bylyt	Pelet
	Star	Yulduz	Yıldız	Ulduz	Ýyldyz	Yoldyz	Juldız	Jıldız	Yulduz	Yultuz	Sulus	Soldor
	Earth	Topraq	Toprak	Torpaq	Toprak	Tufrak	Topıraq	Topurak	Tuproq	Tupraq	Toburaχ	To'pra
	Hilltop	Töpü	Tepe	Təpə	Depe	Tübä	Töbe	Töbö	Tepa	Töpe	Töbö	Tübe'
	Tree	Yağac	Ağaç	Ağac	Agaç	Agaç	Ağaş	Darak	Daraht	Dereh
	God	Tenri	Tanrı	Tanrı	Taňry		Täñiri	Teñir	Tangri	Tengri	Tanara	Tura
	Sky	Kök	Gök	Göy	Gök	Kük	Kök	Kök	Ko'k	Kök	Küöq	Kovak
''Adjectives''	Long	Uzun	Uzun	Uzun	Uzyn	Ozyn	Uzın	Uzun	Uzun	Uzun	Uhun	Vorom
	New	Yany	Yeni	Yeni	Yany	Yana	Jaña	Jañı	Yangi	Yengi	Sana	Sene
	Fat	Semiz	Semiz		Semiz	Simyz	Semiz	Semiz	Semiz	Semiz	Emis	Samar
	Full	Tolu	Dolu	Dolu	Do:ly	Tuly	Tolı	Tolo	To'la	Toluq	Toloru	Tolli
	White	Aq	Ak	Ağ	Ak	Ak	Aq	Ak	Oq	Aq
	Black	Qara	Kara	Qara	Gara	Kara	Qara	Kara	Qora	Qara	Xara	Xora
	Red	Qyzyl	Kızıl	Qızıl	Gyzyl	Kyzyl	Qızıl	Kızıl	Qizil	Qizil	Kyhyl	Xerle
''Numbers''	1	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bir	Ber	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bi:r	Perre
	2	Eki	İki	İki	Iki	İke	Eki	Eki	Ikki	Ikki	Ikki	Ikke'
	4	Tört	Dört	Dörd	Dö:rt	Dürt	Tört	Tört	To'rt	Töt	Tüört
	7	Yeti	Yedi	Yeddi	Yedi	Yide	Jeti	Jeti	Yetti	Yättä	Sette
	10	On	On	On	O:n	U	On	On	O'n	On	Uon	Vonu
	100	Yüz	Yüz	Yüz	Yü:z	Yüz	Jüz	Jüz	Yuz	Yüz	Sü:s	Ser
		'Old Turkic'	'Turkish'	'Azeri'	'Turkmen'	'Tatar'	'Kazakh'	'Kyrgyz'	'Uzbek'	'Uyghur'	'Sakha/Yakut'	'Chuvash'

References

1. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Language Family Trees - Altaic Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)
2. Languages of the World, Third Edition, , Kenneth, Katzner, Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd., 2002,
3. A History of Inner Asia, , Svat, Soucek, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
4. The Turks in World History, , Carter V., Findley, Oxford University Press, 2004,
5.
6. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Language Family Trees - Turkic Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)

Further reading

★ Boeschoten, Hendrik, and Lars Johanson. 2006. ''Turkic languages in contact''. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3447052120

★ Clausen, G. 1972. ''An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

★ Deny J. et al. 1959. ''Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

★ Johanson, L. & Csató, E. Á. (ed.). 1998. ''The Turkic languages''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08200-5.

★ Menges, K. H. 1968. ''The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

★ Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge. ISBN 415141982

★ Schönig, Claus. 1997-1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." ''Turkic Languages'' 1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151.

★ Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. ''Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages''. Petrograd.

See also

★ Altaic languages

★ Proto-Turkic language

★ Old Turkic

★ Middle Turkic

★ Orkhon script

External links

★ Map of Turkic languages

★ Classification of Turkic Languages

★ Online Uyghur-English Dictionary

★