(Redirected from US Navy)
The 'United States Navy' ('USN') is the branch of the
United States armed forces responsible for conducting
naval operations. Its stated mission is "to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression and maintaining freedom of the seas."
[1] The U.S. Navy currently has over 340,000 personnel on active duty and nearly 128,000 in the
Navy Reserve; it has 278
ships in active service and more than 4,000 operational
aircraft.
[2]
The United States Navy traces its origins to the
Continental Navy, which was established during the
American Revolutionary War and was disbanded shortly thereafter. The
United States Constitution, though, provided the legal basis for a seaborne military force by giving
Congress the power "to provide and maintain a navy."
[3] Depredations against American shipping by
Barbary Coast corsairs spurred Congress to employ this power
[4] by passing the
Naval Act of 1794 ordering the construction and manning of
six frigates. The U.S. Navy came into international prominence in the 20th century, especially during
World War II. It was a part of the conflict from the onset of American military involvement — the
Attack on Pearl Harbor — to Japan's official surrender on the deck of the
USS ''Missouri''. In the subsequent
Cold War, the U.S. Navy evolved into a nuclear deterrent and crisis response force while preparing for a possible global war with the
Soviet Union.
The 21st century United States Navy maintains a sizable presence in the world, deploying in such areas as East Asia, Southern Europe, and the
Middle East. Its ability to
project force onto the littoral regions of the world, engage in forward areas during peacetime, and rapidly respond to regional crises makes it an active player in American foreign and defense policy.
[5] The United States Navy is the largest in the world with a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest combined
[6] and has a budget of $127.3 billion for the 2007
fiscal year.
[7]
The Navy is administratively managed by the
Department of the Navy, which is headed by the civilian
Secretary of the Navy. The Department of the Navy is, itself, a division of the
Department of Defense, which is headed by the
Secretary of Defense. The highest ranking Navy officer is the
Chief of Naval Operations.
History
Main articles: History of the United States Navy
Origins
In the early stages of the
American Revolutionary War, the establishment of an official navy was an issue of debate among the members of the
Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, and make it easier to seek out support from foreign countries. Detractors countered that challenging the
British Royal Navy, then the world's preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking.
While Congress deliberated, it received word that two unarmed British supply ships from England were heading towards
Quebec without escort. A plan was drawn up to intercept the ships, however the armed vessels to be used were owned not by Congress, but by individual colonies. Of greater significance, then, was an additional plan to equip two ships that would operate under the direct authority of Congress to capture British supply transports. This was not carried out until
October 13 1775, when
George Washington announced that he had taken command of three armed schooners under Continental authority to intercept any British supply ships near Massachusetts. With the revelation that vessels were already sailing under Continental control, the decision to add two more was made easier;
[8] the resolution was adopted and October 13 would later become known as the United States Navy's official birthday.
[9]
The Continental Navy achieved mixed results; it was successful in a few individual engagements and raided many British merchant vessels, but it lost 24 ships
[10]and at one point was reduced to two in active service.
[11] As Congress turned its attention after the conflict towards securing the western border of the new United States, a standing navy was considered to be dispensable because of its high operating costs and its limited number of national roles.
From reestablishment to the Civil War
The United States would be without a navy for nearly a decade — a state of affairs that exposed its merchant ships to a series of attacks by
Barbary pirates. In response to these depredations, Congress ordered the construction and manning of six frigates on
March 27 1794;
three years later the first three were welcomed into service: the
USS ''United States'',
USS ''Constellation'' and
USS ''Constitution''.
Following an undeclared
Quasi-War with France, the U.S. Navy saw substantial action in the
War of 1812, where it defeated rival British frigates on more than one occasion and emerged victorious in freshwater battles at
Lake Champlain and
Lake Erie. However, the U.S. Navy was not strong enough to prevent the British from blockading American ports and landing troops at will.
After the war, the U.S. Navy again focused its attention on protecting American shipping assets, sending squadrons to the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, South America, Africa, and the Pacific.
The United States went to war in 1846
against Mexico and the Navy contributed by instituting a blockade, assisting the American takeover of
California, and participating in the U.S. military's first large-scale amphibious operation at
Vera Cruz.
The United States Navy established itself as a player in American foreign policy through the actions of
Commodore Matthew Perry in Japan, which resulted in the
Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.
Naval power would play a significant role during the
Civil War, where the
Union had a distinct advantage over the
Confederacy on the seas.
A
Union blockade on shipping handicapped the Southern effort throughout the conflict. The two American navies would help usher in a new era in world naval history by putting
ironclad warships into combat for the first time. The
Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862, which pitted
USS ''Monitor'' against
CSS ''Virginia'', became the first engagement between two steam-powered ironclads.
Soon after the war, however, the U.S. Navy slipped into obsolescence because of neglect.
20th century
A modernization program beginning in the 1880s brought the U.S. into the first rank of the world's navies by the end of the century. In 1907, several of the Navy's ships, dubbed the
Great White Fleet, were showcased in a 14-month circumnavigation of the world. Ordered by
President Theodore Roosevelt, it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy's capability to extend to the global theater.
The Navy saw little action during
World War I, but grew into a formidable force in the years before
World War II. Though ultimately unsuccessful,
Japan attempted to allay this strategic threat with the late-1941 surprise
attack on Pearl Harbor. Following American entry into the war, the U.S. Navy grew tremendously as the United States was faced with a two-front war on the seas. It achieved notable acclaim in the
Pacific Theater in particular, where it was instrumental to the Allies' successful "
island hopping" campaign.
The U.S. Navy participated in many significant battles, including: the
Battle of the Coral Sea, the
Battle of Midway, the
Battle of the Philippine Sea, the
Battle of Leyte Gulf, and the
Battle of Okinawa. By war's end in 1945, the United States Navy had added hundreds of new ships, including 18 aircraft carriers and 8 battleships.
[12]
With the potential for armed conflict with the
Soviet Union during the
Cold War, the U.S. Navy continued to advance technologically by developing new weapons systems, ships, and aircraft. United States naval strategy changed to that of forward deployment in support of U.S. allies with an emphasis on carrier battle groups.
[13] The Navy was a major participant in the
Vietnam War, blockaded Cuba during the
Cuban Missile Crisis, and through the use of
ballistic missile submarines, became an important aspect of the United States'
nuclear strategic deterrence policy. The United States Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran in 1987 and 1988, most notably
Operation Praying Mantis.
21st century
The United States Navy continues to be a major support to American interests in the 21st century. Since the end of the Cold War, it has shifted its focus from a large-scale war with the Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts.
The Navy participated in
Operation Enduring Freedom, the
Iraq War, and the ongoing
War on Terrorism largely in this capacity. Development continues on new ships and weapons, including the
CVN-21 aircraft carrier and the
Littoral combat ship. Because of its size, weapons technology, and ability to project force far from American shores, the current U.S. Navy remains a potent asset for the United States
Commander-in-Chief (the
President of the United States).
The current strategic objectives of the USN:
★ '''Secure the United States from direct attack''' by actively confronting, early and at safe distances, those who would threaten us—especially those who would do so with catastrophic means.
★ '''Secure strategic access and retain global freedom of action''' by ensuring that key regions, lines of communication and the global commonsii remain accessible to all.
★ '''Strengthen existing and emerging alliances and partnerships''' to address common challenges.
★ '''Establish favorable security conditions''' by countering aggression or coercion targeted at our partners or interests.
Organization
Simplified flowchart of U.S. Navy command structure
The Navy falls under the administration of the
Department of the Navy, under civilian leadership of the
Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV). The most senior naval officer is the
Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), a four-star admiral who is immediately under and reports to the Secretary of the Navy. At the same time, the Chief of Naval Operations is one of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, which is the second-highest deliberatory body of the armed forces after the
United States National Security Council, although it only plays an advisory role to the President and does not nominally form part of the chain of command. The Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations are responsible for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Navy so that it is ready for operation under the command of the
Unified Combatant Commanders.
Operating forces
Main articles: United States Navy operating forces organization,
List of units of the United States Navy
There are nine components to the
operating forces of the U.S. Navy:
Atlantic Fleet,
Pacific Fleet, Naval Forces Central Command, Naval Forces Europe, Naval Network Warfare Command,
Navy Reserve,
Naval Special Warfare Command, Operational Test and Evaluation Forces, and
Military Sealift Command.
[14] Fleets in the United States Navy take on the role of force provider; they do not carry out military operations independently, rather they train and maintain naval units that will subsequently be provided to the naval forces component of each
Unified Combatant Command. While not widely publicized, groups of ships departing U.S. waters for operational missions gain a
Task force type designation, almost always with the Second or Third Fleets. On entry into another numbered fleet's area of responsibility, they are redesignated as a task group from that fleet. For example, a carrier task group departing the Eastern Seaboard for the Mediterranean might start out as Task Group 20.1; on entry into the Mediterranean, it might become Task Group 60.1.
The United States Navy has five active numbered fleets — Second, Third, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh — that are each led by a three-star Vice Admiral. These five fleets are further grouped under Fleet Forces Command (the former Atlantic Fleet), Pacific Fleet, Naval Forces Europe, and Naval Forces Central Command, whose commander also doubles as Commander Fifth Fleet; these four commands are led by four-star full Admirals. The
First Fleet existed after the Second World War from 1947 at least, but it was redesignated Third Fleet in early 1973.
[15] Likewise,
Fourth Fleet has not been in operation for some time and no other active fleet has been renamed as such.
Shore establishments
Shore establishment commands exist to support the mission of the afloat fleets through the use of facilities on land. Focusing on logistics and combat-readiness, they are essential for the full, smooth, and continuous operation of operating forces. The variety of commands reflect the complexity of the modern U.S. Navy and range from naval intelligence to personnel training to maintaining repair facilities. Two of the major logistics and repair commands are
Naval Sea Systems Command and
Naval Air Systems Command. Other commands such as the
Office of Naval Intelligence, the
United States Naval Observatory, and the
Navy War College are focused on intelligence and strategy. Training commands include the
Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center and the
United States Naval Academy.
The Navy maintains several "Naval Forces Commands" which operate naval
shore facilities and serve as liaison units to local ground forces of the Air Force and Army. Such commands are answerable to a Fleet Commander as the shore protector component of the afloat command. During times of war, all Naval Forces Commands augment to become task forces of a primary fleet. Some of the larger Naval Forces Commands in the
Pacific Ocean include
Commander Naval Forces Korea (CNFK),
Commander Naval Forces Marianas (CNFM), and
Commander Naval Forces Japan (CNFJ).
Military Sealift Command
Main articles: Military Sealift Command
Military Sealift Command (MSC) serves not only the United States Navy, but the entire Department of Defense as the ocean carrier of
materiel during peacetime and war. It transports equipment, fuel, ammunition, and other goods essential to the smooth function of United States armed forces worldwide. Up to 95% of all supplies needed to sustain the U.S. military can be moved by Military Sealift Command.
[16] MSC operates approximately 120 ships with 100 more in reserve and is unique in that its ships are manned not by active duty Navy personnel, but by civil service or contract
merchant mariners.
Relationships with other service branches
United States Marine Corps
Historically, the United States Navy has enjoyed a unique relationship with the
United States Marine Corps (USMC), partly because they both specialize in seaborne operations. At the very top level of civilian organization, the USMC is part of the
Department of the Navy and reports to the
Secretary of the Navy. However, it is considered to be a distinct, separate service branch and not a subset of the Navy; the highest ranking Marine officer, the
Commandant of the Marine Corps, does not report to a Navy officer. Marine Corps
Medal of Honor recipients are awarded the Navy variant and Marines are eligible to receive the
Navy Cross. The
United States Naval Academy trains Marine Corps commissioned officers while Navy officers undergo instruction by Marine NCO Drill Instructors, in addition to their normal Recruit Division Commander.
The relationship extends to the operational theater as well. As amphibious assault specialists, Marines often deploy on and attack from Navy vessels; while being transported on a Navy ship, they must obey the orders of its captain. Marine strike-fighter air squadrons operate alongside Navy strike-fighter air squadrons from aircraft carriers, though they frequently have distinct missions and rarely fly sorties together; except to directly support Marine ground troops. Other types of marine air squadrons operate from amphibious assault ships in support of marine amphibious operations. The USMC does not train
chaplains,
Religious Programs Specialists and
Hospital Corpsmen or medical doctors; thus officers and enlisted sailors from the Navy fulfill these roles. They generally wear Marine uniforms that are emblazoned with Navy insignia and markings to distinguish themselves from Marines. Corpsmen, Religious Program Specialists, and chaplains enjoy a great sense of camaraderie with the Marines due in part because they work closely with them and often are embedded with Marine units. They operate under the command of the Marine Corps under the auspices of the
Fleet Marine Force, often called "green side" corpsman.
[17]
United States Coast Guard
Because the
Posse Comitatus Act prohibits the Navy from enforcing United States laws, the
United States Coast Guard fulfills this role in naval operations. It provides
Law Enforcement Detachments (LEDETs) to Navy vessels, where they perform arrests and other law enforcement duties during Navy boarding and interdiction missions. In times of war, or when directed by the President, the Coast Guard operates as a service in the Navy and is subject to the orders of the Secretary of the Navy until it is transferred back to the
Department of Homeland Security. At other times, Coast Guard
Port Security Units are sent overseas to guard the security of ports and other assets. The Coast Guard also jointly staffs the Navy's Naval Coastal Warfare Groups and Squadrons (the latter of which were known as
Harbor Defense Commands until late-2004), which oversee defense efforts in foreign littoral combat and inshore areas.
Personnel
The United States Navy has nearly 500,000 personnel, approximately a quarter of whom are in ready reserve. Of those on active duty, more than eighty percent are
enlisted sailors while
commissioned officers make up around fifteen percent; the rest are
midshipmen of the
United States Naval Academy (who are on active duty) and
NROTC units at over 180 universities around the country.
Sailors prove they have mastered skills and deserve responsibilities by completing Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS) tasks and examinations. Among the most important is the "warfare qualification," which denotes a journeyman level of capability in Aviation Warfare, Special Warfare, Surface Warfare, or Submarine Warfare. Many qualifications are denoted on a sailor's uniform with
U.S. Navy badges and insignia.
Commissioned officer
Commissioned officers in the Navy have pay grades ranging from O-1 to O-10, with O-10 being the highest; those with paygrades between O-1 through O-4 are considered junior officers (Junior Officer status, as well as JOPA membership, is lost once an officer accepts a Department Head billet) and officers in the O-7 to O-10 range are called flag officers or the "admiralty." Promotion is based on performance in an officer's current paygrade, which is recorded in "FITREPS" (fitness reports), usually self-written by the officer and edited by superiors. Above the rank of Admiral is
Fleet Admiral (O-11), which was awarded to a select few in World War II and is intended to be used only during a declared war. In 1899, a special rank called
Admiral of the Navy was created for
George Dewey, a war hero of the
Spanish-American War, with the condition that it would cease to exist upon his death.
[18] The honor was also significant because at that time, the United States Navy had no living admirals.
[19] Commissioned officers originate from the
United States Naval Academy,
Navy Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC),
Officer Candidate School (OCS), and a host of other commissioning programs such as the Seaman to Admiral-21 program, the
Limited Duty Officer Selection Program, and the
United States Merchant Marine Academy.
Commissioned officers can generally be divided into line officers and staff corps; line officers can be further split into unrestricted and restricted communities.
Unrestricted Line Officers are the warfighting command element and are authorized to lead ships, aviation squadrons, and special operations units.
Restricted Line Officers, on the other hand, concentrate on non-combat related fields, such as engineering and maintenance; they are ''not'' qualified to command combat units.
Staff Corps officers are specialists in fields that are themselves professional careers and not exclusive to the military, for example: medicine, law, and civil engineering.
Chief Warrant Officer
Chief Warrant Officer (CWO) pay grades range from CWO2 to the highest rank of CWO5. United States Navy CWOs are commissioned officers whose role is to provide leadership and skills for the most difficult and demanding operations in a particular technical specialty. They occupy a niche that is not as well served by the line officer community, which tends to have a broader focus. CWOs come from the senior non-commissioned officer ranks of the enlisted and receive their commission after completing the appropriately named Chief Warrant Officer Program. They typically become CWOs in specialties that are most related to their previous enlisted rating. Like Staff Corps officers, CWOs wear special insignia above the rank devices on their shoulder boards and sleeves to indicate their field of expertise.
| 'Chief Warrant Officer Rank Structure of the United States Navy' |
|---|
| CWO5 | CWO4 | CWO3 | CWO2 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | |||||||
Enlisted sailors
Enlisted members of the Navy have pay grades from E-1 to E-9, with E-9 being the highest. All enlisted sailors with paygrades of E-4 and higher are considered
''Petty Officers'' while those at E-7 and higher are further named
''Chief Petty Officers''. Unlike commissioned officers, who are given authority by the government, NCOs are promoted through the ranks of the enlisted. Those who demonstrate superior performance are given an increase in paygrade; the official Navy term is to be ''advanced''. Two notable advancements are from
Seaman to
Petty Officer Third Class (E-3 to E-4) and from
Petty Officer First Class to
Chief Petty Officer (E-6 to E-7). Advancement to Chief Petty Officer is especially significant and is marked by a special initiation ceremony.
Enlisted members of pay grades E-4 and above are said to be "rated," meaning that they possess a
''rating'', or occupational specialty. Members of grades E-1 to E-3 can be "strikers," meaning they have the same rating designation as a Petty Officer in their field (example: a BM3 is a Petty Officer Third Class rated as a Boatswain's Mate; BMSN is a Seaman designated as a Boatswain's Mate striker), but do not necessarily have to be. Whether a designated striker or not, personnel in the pay grades of E-3 and below are all considered "Non-Rates." There are more than 50 ratings covering a broad range of skills and subspecialties.
Uniforms and appearance
A Vice Admiral returns salute from enlisted sailors in a ceremony.
The uniforms of the United States Navy are designed to combine professionalism and naval heritage with versatility, safety, and comfort.
[20] The Navy currently incorporates many different styles that are specific for a variety of uses and occasions. In most cases, distinctions are made to distinguish officers and enlisted men in their uniformed appearance. U.S. Navy uniforms can generally be divided into three categories: dress uniforms, service uniforms, and working uniforms.
★ ''Dress uniforms'' are worn during military-related formal occasions, such as ceremonies and other official functions. Many types of dress uniforms are used in the Navy with the full range of formal requirements represented. Service dress is the least formal dress uniform, full dress is one step higher in formality, and mess dress is the most formal dress available.
★ ''Service uniforms'' are designed for daily wear and are most often worn in office or classroom-type settings, as well as other occasions in which physical activity is at a minimum.
[21] The most visible distinction between officers and enlisted personnel are the color of the service uniform. Only officers and chief petty officers are authorized to wear service khaki; all other personnel must wear winter blue or summer white.
★ ''Working uniforms'' prioritize comfort and safety first and thus are the most utilitarian of the Navy uniforms. They are intended for use in underway ships and in occasions that involve dirty, physical labor. Many working uniforms are variations of the service uniforms except with less formal requirements. This category includes Navy coveralls, which are authorized to be worn by members of all ranks.
Recently, the Navy completed a project named "Task Force Uniform" to streamline Navy uniforms. Among the changes are that enlisted personnel from
Seaman Recruit to
Petty Officer First Class (E1-E6) will have one year-round service uniform instead of Winter Blues and Summer Whites. All personnel from Seaman Recruit to Admiral will also have new working uniforms dubbed Navy Working Uniform (NWU) to replace the wash khakis, coveralls, dungarees, and aviation working greens currently in use. The uniform is a digital patterned camouflage in predominantly haze gray and blue hues.
[22]
Grooming for both male and female sailors is regulated to a high degree, with exact standards in regards to hair, facial hair, use of cosmetics, and jewelry. New male recruits are given the military
crew cut and are prohibited from having hair longer than four inches while in the service. Men are required to be clean shaven at all times, although mustaches are allowed. Women do not have a hair length regulation, however hair cannot fall past the bottom edge of the uniform collar and the style of hair is strictly controlled. Multicolored hair, body piercing, and tattoos on the head are banned for both sexes.
[23]
Bases
Main articles: List of United States Navy installations
The size, complexity, and international presence of the United States Navy require a large number of navy installations to support its operations. While the majority of bases are located on the West and East coasts of the United States, the Navy maintains a significant number of facilities farther inland and abroad, either in U.S.-controlled territories or in foreign countries under a
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA).
Eastern United States
Map of Navy bases in the United States.
The largest concentration of installations is in
Hampton Roads,
Virginia, where the Navy occupies over 36,000 acres (146 km²) of land, making it the largest naval base in the world. It is the homeport of the Atlantic Fleet and the location of
Northrop Grumman Newport News, a privately owned company that builds the
''Nimitz''-class aircraft carrier. The state of
Florida is the location of two major bases,
Naval Station Mayport, the Navy's third largest, near
Jacksonville and
Naval Air Station Pensacola, the primary training base for Navy and Marine pilots. The main U.S. Navy submarine base is located in
Groton,
Connecticut.
Western United States and Hawaii
The Navy's second largest complex is located in
San Diego in Southern
California. An important port for the Pacific Fleet, it contains the
Naval Special Warfare Center, the main training center for SEALs. The other major collection of naval bases on the west coast is in
Puget Sound,
Washington. Among them,
Naval Station Everett is one of the newer bases in operation and the Navy states that it is its most modern facility.
[24] The naval presence in
Hawaii is centered on
Pearl Harbor, which hosts the headquarters of the Pacific Fleet and many of its subordinate commands.
United States territories
Guam, an island strategically located in the Western Pacific Ocean, maintains a sizable Navy presence. The westernmost U.S. territory, it contains a Naval Air Station and a natural deep water harbor capable of harboring even aircraft carriers in emergencies.
[25] Puerto Rico in the Caribbean formerly housed a navy facility, but it was shut down in 2004 shortly after the controversial closure of the live ordnance training area on nearby
Vieques Island.
Foreign countries
The largest overseas base is in
Yokosuka,
Japan,
[26] which serves as the homeport for the Navy's largest forward-deployed fleet and is a significant base of operations in the Western Pacific. European operations revolve around facilities in
Italy and
Greece with
Gaeta, Italy as the homeport for the Sixth Fleet. In the Middle East, naval facilities are located almost exclusively in countries bordering the
Persian Gulf, with
Manama, Bahrain serving as the headquarters of Fifth Fleet.
Guantánamo Bay in
Cuba is the oldest overseas facility and has become known in recent years as the location of a
detention camp for suspected
al-Qaeda operatives.
Ships
Main articles: United States Navy ships
The names of commissioned ships of the U.S. Navy start with "USS"
[27], designating 'United States Ship'. Non-commissioned, civilian-manned vessels of the U.S. Navy have names that begin with "USNS", standing for 'United States Naval Ship'. Additionally, each ship is given a letter-based
hull classification symbol (for example CVN and DDG) to indicate the vessel's type and a hull number. The names of ships are officially selected by the
Secretary of the Navy and are usually those of U.S. states, cities, towns, important people, famous battles, fish, or ideals. All ships in the U.S. Navy inventory are placed in the
Naval Vessel Register, which tracks data such as the current status of a ship, the date of its commissioning, and the date of its decommissioning. Vessels that are removed from the register prior to disposal are said to be ''stricken'' from the register. The Navy also maintains a
reserve fleet of inactive vessels that are maintained for reactivation in times of need.
The U.S. Navy pioneered the use of
nuclear reactors aboard naval vessels;
[28] today, nuclear energy powers most U.S.
aircraft carriers and
submarines. In the case of a Nimitz-class carrier, two
naval reactors give the ship almost unlimited range and provide enough electrical energy to power a city of 100,000 people.
[29] The U.S. Navy previously operated nuclear-powered cruisers and destroyers as well, but all have been decommissioned.
Aircraft carriers
Due to their ability to put most nations within striking distance of U.S. air power,
aircraft carriers are the cornerstones of the United States’ forward deployment and deterrence strategy.
[30] Multiple carriers are deployed around the world at any given time to provide military presence, respond quickly to crises, and participate in joint exercises with allied forces;
[31] this has led the Navy to refer to their Nimitz-class carriers as "4.5 acres of sovereign and mobile American territory."
[32] Former President
Bill Clinton summed up the importance of the aircraft carrier by stating that "when word of crisis breaks out in Washington, it's no accident the first question that comes to everyone's lips is: where is the nearest carrier?"
[33] The power and operational flexibility of a carrier lie in the aircraft of its
carrier air wing. Made up of both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft, a carrier air wing is able to perform over 150 strike missions, hitting over 700 targets a day,
[34] protect friendly forces, conduct electronic warfare, assist in special operations, and carry out
search and rescue missions. In addition to their airborne capabilities, carriers are important as command platforms for large battle groups or multinational task forces.
A carrier is typically deployed along with a host of additional vessels, forming a
''carrier strike group''. The supporting ships, which usually include three or four
Aegis-equipped cruisers and destroyers, a frigate, and two attack submarines, are tasked with protecting the carrier from air, missile, sea, and undersea threats as well as providing additional strike capabilities themselves. Ready logistics support for the group is provided by a combined ammunition, oiler, and supply ship. Aircraft carriers beginning with
USS ''John F. Kennedy'' (CV-67) are named for living or deceased politicians important to the Navy or United States history. Previous aircraft carriers were generally named for battles and past famous fighting ships of the Navy.
★
''Kitty Hawk'' class (1 in commission, 2 decommissioned)
★
''Enterprise'' class (1 in commission)
★
''Nimitz'' class (9 in commission, 1 under construction)
★
''Gerald R. Ford''-class (1 under construction, 2 planned)
Amphibious warfare vessels
Amphibious assault ships are the centerpieces of U.S. amphibious warfare and fulfill the same power projection role as aircraft carriers except that their striking force comprises land forces instead of aircraft. They deliver, command, coordinate, and fully support all elements of a 2200-strong
Marine Expeditionary Unit in an amphibious assault using air and amphibious vehicles. Resembling small aircraft carriers, amphibious assault ships are capable of
V/STOL,
STOVL,
VTOL, tiltrotor, and rotary wing aircraft operations. They also contain a
welldeck to support the use of
Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) and other amphibious assault watercraft. Recently, amphibious assault ships have begun to be deployed as the core of an ''expeditionary strike group'', which usually consists of an additional amphibious transport dock and dock landing ship for amphibious warfare and an Aegis-equipped cruiser and destroyer, frigate, and attack submarine for group defense. Amphibious assault ships are typically named after World War II aircraft carriers, a name source carried over from the earliest assault ships which actually ''were'' converted WWII carriers.
★
''Tarawa'' class (3 in commission, 2 decommissioned)
★
''Wasp'' class (7 in commission, 1 under construction)
Amphibious transport docks are warships that embark, transport, and land Marines, supplies, and equipment in a supporting role during amphibious warfare missions. With a landing platform, amphibious transport docks also have the capability to serve as secondary aviation support for an expeditionary group. All amphibious transport docks can operate helicopters, LCACs, and other conventional amphibious vehicles while the newer ''San Antonio'' class of ships has been explicitly designed to operate all three elements of the Marines' "mobility triad":
Expeditionary Fighting Vehicles (EFVs), the
V-22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft, and the previously mentioned LCACs. Amphibious transport docks are named for cities, except for
USS ''Mesa Verde'' (LPD-19), named for
Mesa Verde National Park in
Colorado, and two of the three ships named in memory of the
September 11, 2001 attacks:
USS ''New York'' (LPD-21), for the state of
New York, and
USS ''Somerset'' (LPD-25) for
Somerset County, Pennsylvania.
★
''Austin'' class (9 in commission, 2 decommissioned, 1 converted to an auxiliary command ship)
★
''San Antonio'' class (2 in commission, 3 under construction, 4 more planned)
The
dock landing ship is a medium amphibious transport that is designed specifically to support and operate
Landing Craft Air Cushions (LCACs), though it is able to operate other amphibious assault vehicles in the United States inventory as well. Dock landing ships are normally deployed as a component of an expeditionary strike group's amphibious assault contingent, operating as a secondary launch platform for LCACs. All dock landing ships are named after locations in the United States.
★
''Whidbey Island'' class (8 in commission)
★
''Harpers Ferry'' class (4 in commission)
Surface vessels
Cruisers are large surface combat vessels that conduct anti-air/anti-missile warfare, surface warfare, undersea warfare, and strike operations independently or as members of a larger task force. Modern guided missile cruisers were developed out of a need to counter the anti-ship missile threat facing the United States Navy. This led to the development of the
AN/SPY-1 phased array radar and the
Standard Missile 2 with the
Aegis combat system coordinating the two. ''Ticonderoga''-class cruisers became the first to equip Aegis and were put to use primarily as anti-air and anti-missile defense in a battle force protection role. Later developments of
vertical launch systems and the
Tomahawk missile gave cruisers additional long-range land and sea strike capability, making them capable of both offensive and defensive battle operations. All cruisers since CG-47 have been named for famous battles with
USS ''Thomas S. Gates'' (CG-51) as the only exception. Previously, cruisers were either named for cities (until CG-12), former important navy figures (CG-15 to CG-35), or states (CG-36 to CG-42).
★
''Ticonderoga'' class (22 in commission, 5 decommissioned)
Destroyers are multi-mission medium surface ships capable of sustained performance in anti-air, anti-submarine, anti-ship, and offensive strike operations. Like cruisers, the guided missile destroyers of the Navy are primarily focused on surface strikes using
Tomahawk missiles and fleet defense through
Aegis and the
Standard missile. Destroyers additionally specialize in anti-submarine warfare and are equipped with
VLA rockets and
LAMPS Mk III Sea Hawk helicopters to deal with underwater threats. When deployed with a carrier strike group or expeditionary strike group, destroyers and their fellow Aegis-equipped cruisers are primarily tasked with defending the fleet while providing secondary strike capabilities. Destroyers have been named for important navy personnel and heroes since the
USS ''Bainbridge'' (DD-1).
★
''Arleigh Burke'' class (50 in commission, 6 under construction, 7 more planned)
Modern U.S.
frigates mainly perform undersea warfare for carrier strike groups and amphibious expeditionary groups and provide armed escort for supply convoys and merchant shipping. They are designed to protect friendly ships against hostile submarines in low to medium threat environments using torpedoes and LAMPS helicopters. Some Frigates are also able to launch Standard missiles to supply limited protection against anti-ship missiles. Independently, frigates are able to conduct counterdrug missions and other maritime interception operations. The U.S. Navy expects to retire its current class of frigates by 2020.
[35] As in the case of destroyers, frigates are named after naval heroes.
★
''Oliver Hazard Perry'' class (30 in commission, 20 decommissioned)
All U.S.
battleships have been decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register. Designed to engage other capital ships in open sea warfare, battleships were the Navy's largest and most important vessels until the mid-20th century. The rise of aircraft carriers in World War II led to the declining importance of battleships and the Navy relegated them to the roles of fire support and escort. Following a long period of inactivity, the
''Iowa'' class battleships were recommissioned in the 1980s to augment the Navy's size and were upgraded with Tomahawk cruise missile capability. They were decommissioned for the final time in the early 1990s due in part to their high maintenance costs and the Cold War's end. All battleships except
USS ''Kearsarge'' (BB-5) were named for states.
Submarines
Main articles: Submarines in the United States Navy
The primary missions of submarines in the U.S. Navy are peacetime engagement, surveillance and intelligence, special operations, precision strikes, battlegroup operations, and denial of the seas.
[36] The U.S. Navy operates two types: ballistic submarines and attack submarines. Ballistic submarines have only one mission: to carry and launch the nuclear
Trident missile. Attack submarines have several tactical missions, including sinking ships and subs, launching
cruise missiles, gathering intelligence, and assisting in special operations. Sea attack submarines are typically named for cities while land attack submarines (''Virginia''- and converted ''Ohio''-class boats) are typically named for states. Earlier attack submarines were named for "denizens of the deep", while earlier ballistic missile submarines were named for "famous Americans" (although many of them were actually foreigners).
★
''Ohio'' class (18 in commission) — ballistic missile submarines with four to be converted into guided missile submarines
★
''Los Angeles'' class (49 in commission, 13 decommissioned) — attack submarines
★
''Seawolf'' class (3 in commission) — attack submarines
★
''Virginia'' class (3 in commission, 3 under construction, 5 more planned) — attack submarines
Historically significant vessels
The U.S. Navy has operated a number of vessels important to both United States and world naval history.
USS ''Constitution'', nicknamed "Old Ironsides", is the only surviving vessel of the original six frigates authorized by Congress when they re-established the United States Navy in 1794. It served with distinction in the War of 1812 and is currently docked in
Charlestown, Massachusetts, as the oldest commissioned warship ''afloat''.
USS ''Monitor'' and
CSS ''Virginia'' are together known for participating in the first engagement between two steam-powered
ironclads, known as the
Battle of Hampton Roads. USS ''Monitor'' was the first ironclad built by the U.S. Navy and its design introduced the rotating gun turret to naval warfare. The first submarine built by the U.S. Navy was
USS ''Alligator'', which sank in 1863 while being towed during a storm and never saw combat. The
''H.L. Hunley'', although technically never a part of the U.S. Navy, was the first submarine to sink a ship in a combat engagement by hitting the
USS '' Housatonic'' with a spar-mounted
torpedo in 1864; however, the ''H.L. Hunley'' itself was lost during the operation. It was built by
Confederate inventor Horace L. Hunley, who lost his life while operating the ship during a trial run.
USS ''Nautilus'' (SSN-571), commissioned in 1954, was the first nuclear-powered warship in the world. It demonstrated its capabilities by traveling , more than half of which was submerged, in two years before having to refuel while breaking the record for longest submerged voyage.
[37] USS ''Long Beach'' (CGN-9) was the first nuclear-powered ''surface'' warship in the world and signaled a new era of United States naval weaponry by being the first large ship in the Navy to have guided missiles as its main battery.
Aircraft
Main articles: List of US Naval aircraft,
List of military aircraft of the United States (naval)
Carrier-based aircraft are able to strike air, sea, and land targets far from a carrier strike group while protecting friendly forces from enemy aircraft, ships, and submarines. In peacetime, aircraft's ability to project the threat of sustained attack from a mobile platform on the seas gives United States leaders significant diplomatic and crisis-management options. Aircraft additionally provide
logistics support to maintain the Navy’s readiness and, through helicopters, supply platforms with which to conduct
search and rescue,
special operations,
anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and
anti-surface warfare (ASuW).
The U.S. Navy began to research the use of aircraft at sea in the 1910s and commissioned its first aircraft carrier,
USS ''Langley'', in 1922.
[38] United States naval aviation fully came of age in World War II, when it became clear following the
Attack on Pearl Harbor, the
Battle of the Coral Sea, and the
Battle of Midway that aircraft carriers and the planes that they carried had replaced the battleship as the greatest weapon on the seas. Navy aircraft also played a significant role in conflicts during the following Cold War years, with the
F-4 Phantom II and the
F-14 Tomcat becoming military icons of the era. The Navy's current primary fighter and attack airplanes are the multi-mission
F/A-18C/D Hornet and its newer cousin, the
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. The
F-35 Lightning II is presently under development and is scheduled to replace the C and D versions of the Hornet in 2012.
[39]
Weapons systems
Main articles: List of US Navy weapons
Current U.S. Navy shipboard weapons systems are almost entirely focused on missiles, both as a weapon and as a threat. In an offensive role, missiles are intended to strike targets at long distances with accuracy and precision. Because they are unmanned weapons, missiles allow for attacks on heavily defended targets without risk to human pilots. Land strikes are the domain of the
BGM-109 Tomahawk, which was first deployed in the 1980s and is continually being updated to increase its capabilities. For anti-ship strikes, the Navy's dedicated missile is the
Harpoon missile. To defend against enemy missile attack, the Navy operates a number of systems that are all coordinated by the
Aegis combat system. Medium-long range defense is provided by the
Standard Missile 2, which has been deployed since the 1980s. The Standard missile doubles as the primary shipboard anti-aircraft weapon and is undergoing development for use in theater ballistic missile defense. Short range defense against missiles is provided by the
Phalanx CIWS and the more recently developed
RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile. In addition to missiles, the Navy employs
Mark 46 and
Mark 50 torpedoes and various types of mines.
Aviation Ordnancemen loading
GBU-12 bombs.
Naval fixed-wing aircraft employ much of the same weapons as the
United States Air Force for both air-to-air and air-to-surface combat. Air engagements are handled by the heat-seeking
Sidewinder and the radar guided
AMRAAM missiles along with the
M61 Vulcan for close range dogfighting. For surface strikes, Navy aircraft utilize a combination of missiles, smart bombs, and dumb bombs. On the list of available missiles are the
Maverick,
SLAM-ER, and
JSOW. Smart bombs include the GPS-guided
JDAM and the laser-guided
Paveway series. Unguided munitions such as dumb bombs and
cluster bombs round out the rest of the weapons deployed by fixed-wing aircraft.
Rotary aircraft weapons revolve around anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and light to medium surface engagements. To combat submarines, helicopters use Mark 46 and Mark 50 torpedoes. Against small watercraft, they utilize
Hellfire and
Penguin air to surface missiles. Helicopters also employ various types of mounted anti-personnel machine guns, including the
M60D,
M240,
GAU-16, and
GAU-17.
Nuclear weapons in the U.S. Navy arsenal are deployed through ballistic missile submarines and aircraft. The
''Ohio''-class submarine carries the latest iteration of the
Trident missile, a three stage, underwater launched, nuclear
ICBM with
MIRV capability; the current Trident II (D5) version is expected to be in service past 2020.
[40] The Navy’s other nuclear weapon is the aircraft-deployed
B61 nuclear bomb. The B61 is a thermonuclear device that can be dropped by strike aircraft such as the F/A-18 Hornet and Super Hornet at high speed from a large range of altitudes. They can be released through free-fall or parachute and can be set to detonate in the air or on the ground.
Special warfare
SEALs coming ashore.
The major players in U.S. Navy special operations are the
United States Navy SEALs and the
Special Warfare Combatant-craft Crewmen (SWCCs, pronounced "swicks").
The SEALs derive their name from the environments in and from which they can operate: '''SE'''a, '''A'''ir, and '''L'''and. Their distinguishing specialty, however, is maritime operations — striking from and returning to the sea.
[41]The SEALs are a flexible group of naval
Special Forces who are trained to conduct clandestine warfare, most often in small-unit actions.
SWCC's are trained in small ship and watercraft special operations and often work closely with their SEAL counterparts. Organized into
Special Boat Teams, SWCCs have their expertise in inserting and extracting SEALs in hostile territory, coastal patrol and surveillance, and boarding and searching vessels.
[42]
Naval special operations groups
Navy special operations fall under the jurisdiction of
Naval Special Warfare Command, the Navy branch of
United States Special Operations Command. Within Naval Special Warfare Command are seven operational entities: four ''Special Warfare Groups'', the ''Special Warfare Development Group'', the ''Operational Support Group'', and the ''Special Warfare Center''.
★ ''Naval Special Warfare Group ONE'' and ''Group TWO'' each consist of four teams of
Navy SEALs and a few Naval Special Warfare (NSW) Units. NSW units are charged with overall command and control and planning of special operations within their geographic jurisdiction.
★ ''Group THREE'' is made up of SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) Teams. SEALs who are assigned to SDV teams specialize in the use of
Swimmer Delivery Vehicles (known as "
SEAL Delivery Vehicles" in American service) and
Advanced SEAL Delivery Systems (ASDSs). These watercraft are submersibles that are designed to insert SEAL operators underwater, from long distances offshore.
★ ''Group FOUR'' comprises all of the Navy's Special Boat Teams.
[43]
★ The
''Navy Special Warfare Development Group'', also known as ''Dev Group'' or ''DEVGRU'', is the United States military's premier Maritime Counter-Terrorism unit. While the Navy confirms the existence of the unit, it merely states that the role of Dev Group is to test, evaluate, and develop technology and maritime, ground and airborne tactics for Navy Special Warfare;
[44] no official mention of counter-terrorism concerning DEVGRU is made. Though much of the information regarding this unit is classified, it is estimated that the group consists of approximately 200 active operators.
[45]
★ The ''Operational Support Group'' is the reserve element of NSWC, providing support to active units when necessary.
[46]
★ The
Naval Special Warfare Center, located in Coronado, California, is the main training center for Navy special operations personnel including the
United States Navy SEALs's.
Although not under the jurisdiction of NSW Command, Navy
Explosive Ordnance Disposal Units often work closely with special operations teams. Trained to be combat-ready and highly mobile, EOD units are entrusted with nullifying hazardous ordnance in a number of different maritime environments.
[47] They are also able to conduct underwater anti-mine operations using marine mammals.
[48]
Coastal warfare
Members of Inshore Boat Unit 24 patrol near Kuwait Naval Base.
Coastal and harbor defense and protection of naval assets are placed under the jurisdiction of two Naval Coastal Warfare Groups: one for the Pacific Fleet and one for the Atlantic Fleet. Within these groups are ''
Mobile Security Squadrons'' and ''
Naval Coastal Warfare Squadrons''. MSSs deploy Mobile Security Detachments that provide force protection for high value naval targets in ports and harbors where U.S. shore infrastructure is limited or does not exist. Naval Coastal Warfare Squadrons provide surveillance and security in harbors, coasts, and inshore areas. They comprise ''Mobile Inshore Undersea Warfare Units'' (MIUWUs) and ''Inshore Boat Units'' (IBUs). MIUWUs are charged with security, observation, and communications support for commanders operating in an inshore/coast environment, including anchorages and harbors. In the same operating environment, IBUs manage water craft for security, interdiction and surveillance.
Naval culture
The current
naval jack of the United States is the
First Navy Jack, traditionally regarded as having been used during the American Revolutionary War. On
May 31,
2002,
Secretary of the Navy Gordon England directed all U.S. naval ships to fly the First Navy Jack for the duration of the
War on Terrorism. Many ships chose to shift colors later that year on the first anniversary of the
September 11, 2001 attacks. The previous naval jack was a blue field with 50 white stars, identical to the canton of the ensign (the
Flag of the United States) both in appearance and size. A jack of similar design was used in 1794, though with 13 stars arranged in a 3–2–3–2–3 pattern. When a ship is moored or anchored, the jack is flown from the
bow of the ship while the ensign is flown from the
stern. When underway, the ensign is raised on the mainmast. The First Naval Jack, however, has always been flown on the oldest ship in the American fleet.
Over the course of the United States Navy's 207-year existence, a distinct jargon has evolved among American sailors and has become a normal part of their everyday speech. Modern
U.S. Navy slang draws from a number of varied sources. It includes traditional sailing terms, archaic English words, and a plethora of acronyms, joke phrases, crude expressions, and abbreviations that have been created within the past hundred years.
The USN also has new sailors take the "
Sailor's creed" upon entering into service.
Notable sailors
Main articles: List of United States Navy people
Many past and present United States historical figures have served in the Navy. Notable officers include
John Paul Jones,
James Lawrence, whose last words "Don't give up the ship" are memorialized in Bancroft Hall hall at the
US Naval Academy,
Oliver Hazard Perry,
Commodore Matthew Perry, who fully opened
Tokugawa-era Japan to the West, and
Chester Nimitz, Admiral of the Pacific Fleet in World War II,
Rodger W. Simpson World War II Hero. A number of former
Presidents were in the Navy as well, including
John F. Kennedy,
Lyndon Johnson,
Richard Nixon,
Gerald Ford,
Jimmy Carter, and
George H.W. Bush. Both
Theodore Roosevelt and
Franklin D. Roosevelt were the
Assistant Secretary of the Navy prior to their Presidencies. Some members of the
United States Senate and
House of Representatives, for example
John McCain and
John Kerry, have also seen Navy service. Other notable former members of the U.S. Navy include astronauts, entertainers, authors, and professional athletes such as
David Robinson and
Roger Staubach.
References
1. "The U.S. Navy Organization". U.S. Navy Official Website. Accessed April 8 2006.
2. Status of the Navy. U.S. Navy Official Website. Accessed August 3 2007.
3. "Constitution of the United States". The National Archives Experience. Accessed July 25 2006.
4. Palmer, Michael A. "The Navy: The Continental Period, 1775-1890". Department of the Navy - Naval Historical Center Official Website. Accessed April 8 2006.
5. "Forward...From the Sea". Department of the Navy Website. Accessed July 25 2006.
6. Work, Robert O. "Winning the Race:A Naval Fleet Platform Architecture for Enduring Maritime Supremacy". Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments Online. Accessed April 8 2006.
7. Briefing. United States Navy Office of Financial Operations. Accessed April 06, 2007.
8. "Birth of the U.S. Navy". Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center Official Website. Accessed August 2 2006.
9. "Birthplace of the Navy". Department of the Navy - Naval Historical Center Official Website. Accessed April 8 2006.
10. Love, Robert W. Jr. History of the U.S. Navy Volume One: 1775-1941. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992.
11. Howarth, Steven. To Shining Sea: A history of the United States Navy 1776-1991. New York: Random House, 1991.
12. King, Ernest J., USN. "Major Combatant Ships Added to United States Fleet, 7 December 1941 - 1 October 1945". U.S. Navy at War 1941-1945: Official Report to the Secretary of the Navy. Accessed April 8 2006.
13. Palmer, Michael A. "The Navy: The Transoceanic Period, 1945-1992". Department of the Navy - Naval Historical Center Official Website. Accessed April 08 2006.
14. "Navy Organization - The Operating Forces". Official U.S. Navy Website. Accessed August 6 2006.
15. The Coast Guard is often believed to act as the First Fleet in wartime; however, the United States has never officially used this reference and it is informal at best. "Numbered Fleets". There was a time in history in which the Navy was disbanded 1790-1798. The only warships protecting the country were Revenue Cutters, the predecessor to the USCG. This is why USCG ships are referred to as Cutters. Federation of American Scientists: Military Analysis Network. Accessed April 8, 2006.
16. "Military Sealift Command". Official U.S. Navy Website.Accessed July 24 2006.
17. USMC Public affairs -- Recon Marines seek green-side corpsmen.
18. Admiral of the Navy George Dewey, USN. Naval Historical Center Official Website. Accessed May 16, 2007.
19. Naval Traditions: Names of Ranks. Naval Historical Center Official Website. Accessed May 16, 2007.
20. "Task Force Uniform". Navy Personnel Command. Accessed April 8 2006.
21. Foutch, Michael, USN. "New Navy Working Uniform and Service Uniform Concepts Approved". Navy newsstand. Accessed April 8 2006.
22. [1]. New Navy Working Uniform and Service Uniform Concepts Approved. Accessed March 2 2006.
23. "Chapter 2: Grooming Regulations". U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations. Accessed July 21 2006.
24. Naval Station Everett. Naval Station Everett Official Site. Accessed April 18 2006.
25. Guam. Globalsecurity.org. Accessed May 19, 2007.
26. Yokosuka, Japan. Globalsecurity.org. Accessed April 19 2006.
27. USN Ship Naming.Naval Historical Center Website. Accessed May 19, 2007
28. "CVN-65 Enterprise". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed March 7 2007
29. "CVN-68 Nimitz Class". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed April 8 2006.
30. "Why the carriers?". Official United States Navy website. Accessed March 7 2007.
31. "Fact file - Aircraft Carriers". Official United States Navy website. Accessed March 7 2007.
32. "World Wide Aircraft Carriers". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed November 12 2006.
33. The US Navy Aircraft Carriers. Official U.S. Navy Website. Accessed August 20 2006.
34. "Carrier Design". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed April 8 2006.
35. "FFG-7 OLIVER HAZARD PERRY-class Program Status". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed April 8 2006.
36. "Submarine Missions". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed April 8 2006.
37. "SSN-571 Nautilus". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed July 20 2006.
38. "A Brief History of U.S. Navy Aircraft Carriers: Part I - The Early Years". U.S. Navy Official Website. Accessed April 9 2006.
39. "F-35C Joint Strike Fighter". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed July 18 2006.
40. "Trident Fleet Ballistic Missile". U.S. Navy Official Website. Accessed April 8 2006.
41. "SEAL Missions". Official U.S. Navy SEAL Information Website. Accessed April 8 2006.
42. "U.S. Navy Special Boat Squadrons". Global Special Operations 101. Accessed April 8 2006.
43. "Component Commands". Official U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command Website.Accessed April 8 2006.
44. "Naval Special Warfare Command - excerpt from JCS SOF Reference Manual". Navyseals.com. Accessed April 8 2006.
45. "Naval Special Warfare Development Group". Specialoperations.com. Accessed April 8 2006.
46. Naval Special Warfare Reshapes Reserves
47. "United States Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal". Specwarnet.com. Accessed April 8 2006.
48. "U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Fleet Systems". U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. Accessed April 8 2006.
★
Globalsecurity.org United States Navy section
★
Naval Open Source Intelligence (NOSI)
★
United States Navy Official Website
★
U.S. Navy in WW II
★ Howarth, Steven.
To Shining Sea: A history of the United States Navy 1776-1991. New York: Random House, 1991. ISBN 0-394-57662-4
★ Love, Robert W. Jr.
History of the U.S. Navy Volume One: 1775-1941. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8117-1862-X
External links
★
United States Navy official website
★
Navy.com, USN official recruitment site
★
United States Navy Memorial
★
Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the U.S. Navy
★
Photographic History of The U.S. Navy
★
Haze Gray & Underway — Naval History and Photography
★
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