In the 'United States presidential election of 1800', sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800â€,
Thomas Jefferson defeated
John Adams. The election ushered in a generation of
Democratic-Republican Party rule and the eventual demise of the
Federalist Party.
The election exposed one of the flaws in the original
Constitution. Members of the
Electoral College could only vote for president; the
vice president was the person who had the second largest number of votes during the election. The Democratic-Republican plan to have one elector vote for Jefferson and not
Aaron Burr was bungled, resulting in a tie in the electoral vote between Jefferson and Burr. The election was then put into the hands of the outgoing Federalist Party
House of Representatives. Most Federalists voted for Burr in order to block Jefferson from the presidency, and the result was a week of deadlock. Federalist
Alexander Hamilton, who preferred Jefferson to Burr, intervened on Jefferson's behalf, which allowed Jefferson to ascend to the presidency. Hamilton's actions were one cause of his
duel with Burr, which resulted in Hamilton's death in 1804.
Jefferson's victory ended America's most acrimonious presidential campaign to date. The
Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, was added to the United States Constitution. It required electors to make a distinct choice between their selections for president and vice president.
General election
Campaign
The 1800 election was a rematch of the
1796 election. The campaign was bitter and characterized by slander and personal attacks on both sides. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radicals who would murder their opponents, burn churches, and destroy the country. In 1798, Federalist
George Washington had complained "that you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest[sic] Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country.â€
[1] Meanwhile, the Democratic-Republicans accused Federalists of destroying republican values with the
Alien and Sedition Acts; they also accused Federalists of favoring Britain in order to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values.
[2]
Adams was attacked by both the opposition Democratic-Republicans and by "High Federalists" in his own Federalist Party who were aligned with Hamilton. The Democratic-Republicans felt that Adams' foreign policy was too favorable toward Britain, feared that the new army called up for the
Quasi-War would oppress the people, opposed Adam's new taxes, and attacked his Alien and Sedition Acts as violations of
states' rights. A faction of “High Federalists†considered Adams too moderate. Federalist leader
Alexander Hamilton schemed to elect vice presidential candidate
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to the presidency. One of Hamilton's letters attacking Adams became public, embarrassing Adams and damaging Hamilton's efforts on behalf of Pinckney.
[3]
Jefferson's platform
Political parties in the 1790s did not issue official platforms as they do today. However, Jefferson issued a major statement in a
January 26,
1799 public letter to Elbridge Gerry that was widely reprinted and circulated. It became the political creed for which he was best known in his lifetime.
[4]
I am for free commerce with all nations; political connection with none; & little or no diplomatic establishment. And I am not for linking ourselves by new treaties with the quarrels of Europe; entering that field of slaughter to preserve their balance, or joining in the confederacy of kings to war against the principles of liberty.
I am for freedom of religion, and against all maneuvres to bring about a legal ascendancy of one sect over another: for freedom of the press, & against all violations of the constitution to silence By force & not by reason the complaints or criticisms, just or unjust, of our citizens against the conduct of their agents. And I am for encouraging the progress of science in all it's branches; and not for raising a hue and cry against the sacred name of philosophy; for awing the human mind by stories of raw-head & bloody bones to a distrust of its own vision, & to repose implicitly on that of others; to go backwards instead of forwards to look for improvement; to believe that government, religion, morality, & every other science were in the highest perfection in ages of the darkest ignorance, and that nothing can ever be devised more perfect than what was established by our forefathers. To these I will add, that I was a sincere well-wisher to the success of the French revolution, and still wish it may end in the establishment of a free & well-ordered republic; but I have not been insensible under the atrocious depredations they have committed on our commerce.[5]
Selection method changes
Partisans on both sides sought any advantage they could find. In several states, this included changing the method of selection to ensure the desired result. In Georgia, Democratic-Republican legislators replaced the popular vote with selection by the state legislature. Federalist legislators did the same in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. (This may have had some unintended consequences in Massachusetts, where the delegation to the federal House of Representatives was changed from 12–2 Federalist to 8–6 Federalist by irate voters.) Pennsylvania also switched to legislative choice, but this resulted in an almost evenly split set of electors. Virginia switched from electoral districts to winner-take-all, a move that probably switched one or two votes from the Federalist column to the Democratic-Republican column.
Voting
Because each state could choose its own election day, voting lasted from April to October. In April, Burr succeeded in reversing the Federalist majority and getting a Democratic-Republican majority in
New York's state legislature. With the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans tied 65–65 in the Electoral College, the last state to vote, South Carolina, chose eight Democratic-Republicans, giving the election to Jefferson and Burr.
Under the
United States Constitution, each presidential elector cast two votes, without distinction as to which was for president or vice president. The recipient of a majority of votes was elected president, while the vice presidency went to the recipient of the second greatest number of votes. The Federalists therefore had one of their electors vote for John Jay rather than for vice presidential candidate Pinckney. The Democratic-Republicans had a similar plan to have one of their electors cast a vote for another candidate instead of Burr, but, by a misadventure, failed to execute it. As a result, the Democratic-Republican electors each cast their two votes for Jefferson and Burr, giving each of them 73 votes. A contingent election had to be held in the House of Representatives (the old House elected in 1798).
[3]
Disputes
Defective certificates
When the electoral ballots were opened and counted on
February 11,
1801, it turned out that the certificate of election from Georgia was defective; while it was clear that the electors had cast their votes for Jefferson and Burr, the certificate did not take the Constitutionally mandated form of a "List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each." Jefferson, who was counting the votes in his role as president of the senate, immediately counted the votes from Georgia as votes for Jefferson and Burr. No objections were raised. The total number of votes for Jefferson and Burr was 73, a majority.
Results
Jefferson and Burr tied for first place, so the election was thrown into the House of Representatives.
'Source (Popular Vote):'
U.S. President National Vote. ''
Our Campaigns''. (
February 10,
2006).
'Source (Electoral Vote):'
(a) ''Votes for Federalist electors have been assigned to John Adams and votes for Republican electors have been assigned to Thomas Jefferson.''
(b) ''Only 6 of the 16 states chose electors by any form of popular vote.''
(c) ''Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.''
Breakdown by ticket
Contingent election
The members of the House of Representatives balloted as states to determine whether Jefferson or Burr would become president. There were sixteen states, and an
absolute majority—in this case, nine—were required for victory.
While it was common knowledge that Jefferson was the candidate for president and Burr for vice president, the lame-duck House was controlled by the Federalists, who were loath to vote for Jefferson, their partisan nemesis; Jefferson was the key opponent of Federalists since 1789. Most Federalists voted for Burr, giving Burr six of the eight states controlled by Federalists. The seven states controlled by Democratic-Republicans all voted for Jefferson, and Georgia's lone living Federalist representative also voted for Jefferson, giving Jefferson eight states. Vermont was evenly split, casting a blank ballot. The remaining state, Maryland, had five Federalist representatives to three Democratic-Republicans; one of its Federalist representatives voted for Jefferson, forcing the state delegation to cast a blank ballot.
Over the course of seven days from
February 11 to
February 17, the House cast a total of 35 ballots, with Jefferson receiving the votes of eight state delegations each time—one short of the necessary majority of nine. During the confusion,
Alexander Hamilton said he supported Jefferson because he was “by far not so dangerous a man†as Burr. On Tuesday,
February 17, on the 36th ballot, Jefferson was elected. Federalist
James A. Bayard of Delaware and his allies in Maryland and Vermont all cast blank ballots, thereby giving Jefferson a majority of ten states to four.
[3]
Results
| Jefferson | Burr | no result |
|---|
| 1st – 35th ballots | 8 | 6 | 2 |
|---|
| 36th ballot | 10 | 4 | 2 |
|---|
In the following table, results for the state delegation are expressed as (<''votes for Jefferson''>-<''votes for Burr''>-<''abstentions''>).
| 1st ballot | 2nd–35th ballots(a) | 36th ballot |
|---|
| 'Georgia' (b) | Jefferson
(1-0-0) | Jefferson
(1-0-0) | Jefferson
(1-0-0) |
| 'Kentucky' | Jefferson
(2-0-0) | Jefferson
(2-0-0) | Jefferson
(2-0-0) |
| 'New Jersey' | Jefferson
(3-2-0) | Jefferson
(3-2-0) | Jefferson
(3-2-0) |
| 'New York' | Jefferson
(6-4-0) | Jefferson
(6-4-0) | Jefferson
(6-4-0) |
| 'North Carolina' | Jefferson
(9-1-0) | Jefferson
(6-4-0) | Jefferson
(6-4-0) |
| 'Pennsylvania' | Jefferson
(9-4-0) | Jefferson
(9-4-0) | Jefferson
(9-4-0) |
| 'Tennessee' | Jefferson
(1-0-0) | Jefferson
(1-0-0) | Jefferson
(1-0-0) |
| 'Virginia' | Jefferson
(16-3-0) | Jefferson
(14-5-0) | Jefferson
(14-5-0) |
| 'Maryland' | no result
(4-4-0) | no result
(4-4-0) | Jefferson
(4-0-4) |
| 'Vermont' | no result
(1-1-0) | no result
(1-1-0) | Jefferson
(1-0-1) |
| 'Delaware' | Burr
(0-1-0) | Burr
(0-1-0) | no result
(0-0-1) |
| 'South Carolina' (c) | Burr
(0-5-0) | Burr
(1-3-0) | no result
(0-0-4) |
| 'Connecticut' | Burr
(0-7-0) | Burr
(0-7-0) | Burr
(0-7-0) |
| 'Massachusetts' | Burr
(3-11-0) | Burr
(3-11-0) | Burr
(3-11-0) |
| 'New Hampshire' | Burr
(0-4-0) | Burr
(0-4-0) | Burr
(0-4-0) |
| 'Rhode Island' | Burr
(0-2-0) | Burr
(0-2-0) | Burr
(0-2-0) |
(a) ''The votes of the individual representatives is typical and may have fluctuated from ballot to ballot, but the result for each individual state did not change.''
(b) ''Even though Georgia had two representatives apportioned, one seat was vacant due to the death of
James Jones.''
(c) ''Even though South Carolina had six representatives apportioned,
Thomas Sumter was absent due to illness, and
Abraham Nott departed for South Carolina between the first and final ballots.''
Electoral college selection
See also
★
History of the United States (1789-1849)
★
First Party System
Notes
1. Gilder Lehrman Document Number: GLC 581
2. Buel (1972)
3. Ferling (2004)
4. Thomas Jefferson, , Merrill, Peterson, , 1975,
5. Jefferson, Thomas (1799-01-26). Letter to Elbridge Gerry.
6. Ferling (2004)
7. Ferling (2004)
References
★
Annals of the Congress of the United States, , , , Gales and Seaton, 1834–1856,
★
A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College
Bibliography
★
Federalists Reconsidered, , , , , 1999,
★
Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic, , , , , 2004,
★
The Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy, , Charles A., Beard, , 1915,
★
Establishing Congress : The Removal to Washington, D.C., and the Election of 1800, , Kenneth R., Bowling, , 2005,
★
Securing the Revolution: Ideology in American Politics, 1789–1815, , Richard, Buel, , 1972,
★
Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809, , William Nisbet, Chambers, , 1963,
★
The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809, , Noble E., Jr., Cunningham, , 1965,
★
The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism, , Susan, Dunn, , 2004,
★
The Age of Federalism, , Stanley, Elkins, , 1995,
★
Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800, , John, Ferling, , 2004,
★
The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy, , David Hackett, Fischer, , 1965,
★
The election of 1800: a study in the logic of political change, , Joanne B., Freeman, Yale Law Journal, 1999
★
The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, , Paul, Goodman, , 1967,
★
The Idea of a Party System, , Richard, Hofstadter, , 1970,
★
The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic, , James P. P., Horn, , 2002,
★
Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox, , John C., Miller, , 1959,
★
Aaron Burr: A Biography, , Nathan, Schachner, , 1961,
★
American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis, , James Roger, Sharp, , 1993,
External links
★
Documentary Timeline Lesson plans from NEH
★
A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825
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