The 'Urnfield culture' (c.
1300 BC -
750 BC) was a late
Bronze Age culture of central
Europe. The name comes from the custom of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in
urns which were then buried in fields. The Urnfield culture followed the
Tumulus culture and was succeeded by the
Hallstatt culture.
Chronology
It is believed that in some areas, such as in southwestern Germany, it was in existence around 1200 BC (beginning of Ha A), but the Bronze D
Riegsee-phase already contains cremations. As the transition from the middle
Bronze Age to the Urnfield culture was gradual, there are questions regarding how to define it.
The Urnfield culture covers the phases Hallstatt A and B (Ha A and B) in
Paul Reinecke's chronological system, not to be confused with the
Hallstatt culture (Ha C and D) of the following
Iron Age. This corresponds to the Phases Montelius III-IV of the Northern Bronze Age. Whether Reinecke's Bronze D is included varies according to author and region.
The Urnfield culture is divided into the following sub-phases (based on Müller-Karpe sen.):
| date BC
|
|---|
| BzD | 1300-1200
|
| Ha A1 | 1200-1100
|
| Ha A2 | 1100-1000
|
| HaB1 | 1000-800
|
| HaB2 | 900-800
|
| Ha B3 | 800-750
|
The existence of the Ha B3-phase is contested, as the material consists of female burials only. As can be seen by the arbitrary 100-year ranges, the dating of the phases is highly schematic. The phases are based on typological changes, which means that they do not have to be strictly contemporaneous across the whole distribution. All in all, more radiocarbon- and dendro-dates would be highly desirable.
Origin
The Urnfield culture grew from the preceding
tumulus culture. The transition is gradual, in the
pottery as well as the burial rites. In some parts of Germany, cremation and inhumation existed simulteneously (facies Wölfersheim). Some graves contain a combination of tumulus-culture pottery and Urnfield
swords (Kressborn, Bodenseekreis) or tumulus culture incised pottery together with early Urnfield types (Mengen). In the North, the Urnfield culture was only adopted in the HaA2 period.
16 pins deposited in a swamp in Ellmoosen (Kr. Bad Aibling, Germany) cover the whole chronological range from Bronze B to the early Urnfield period (Ha A). This demonstrates a considerable ritual continuity. In the
Loire,
Seine and
Rhône, certain fords contain deposits from the late Neolithic onwards up to the Urnfield period.
The origins of the cremation rite is commonly believed to be the
Balkans, where it was widespread in the eastern part of the Tumulus culture. Some cremations begin to be found in the
Proto-Lusatian and
Trzciniec-culture.
Distribution and local groups
The Urnfield culture was located in an area stretching from western Hungary to eastern France, from the
Alps to near the North Sea.
Local groups, mainly differentiated by pottery, include:
★ Knovíz-culture in western and Northern
Bohemia, southern Thuringia and North-eastern Bavaria
★ Milavce-culture in southeastern Bohemia
★ Velatice-Baierdorf in
Moravia and
Austria
★ Čaka in western
Slovakia
★ Northeast-Bavarian Group, divided into a lower
Bavarian and an upper
Palatinate group
★ Unstrut group in
Thuringia, a mixture between Knovíz-culture and the South-German Urnfield culture.
South-German Urnfield culture
★ Lower-Main-Swabian group in southern Hesse and Baden-Württemberg, including the
Marburger,
Hanauer, lower
Main and
Friedberger facies.
★ Rhenish-Swiss group in Rhineland-Palatinate,
Switzerland and eastern
France, (abbreviated RSFO in French).
Lower-Rhine urnfields
★ Lower Hessian Group
★ North-Netherlands-Westphalian group
★ Northwest-Group in the Dutch Delta region.
Sometimes the distribution of artefacts belonging to these groups shows sharp and consistent borders, which might indicate some political structures, like tribes. Metalwork is commonly of a much more widespread distribution than pottery and does not conform to these borders. It may have been produced at specialised workshops catering for the elite of a large area.
Burial
In the tumulus-period, multiple inhumations under barrows were common, at least for the upper levels of society. In the Urnfield period, inhumation and burial in single graves prevails, though some barrows exist.
In the earliest phases of the Urnfield period, man-shaped graves were dug, sometimes provided with a stone lined floor, in which the cremated remains of the deceased were spread. Only later, burial in urns became prevalent. Some scholars speculate that this may have marked a fundamental shift in people's beliefs or myths about life and the afterlife.
The size of the urnfields is variable. In Bavaria, they can contain hundreds of burials, while the largest cemetery in
Baden-Württemberg in
Dautmergen has only 30 graves.
The dead were placed on
pyres, covered in their personal jewellery, which often shows traces of the fire and sometimes food-offerings. The cremated bone-remains are much larger than in the Roman period, which indicates that less wood was used. Often, the bones have been incompletely collected.
Most urnfields are abandoned with the end of the Bronze Age, only the Lower Rhine urnfields continue in use in the early Iron Age (Ha C, sometimes even D).
Construction of the graves
The cremated bones could be placed in simple pits. Sometimes the dense concentration of the bones indicates a container of organic material, sometimes the bones were simply shattered.
If the bones were placed in urns, these were often covered by a shallow bowl or a stone. In a special type of burial (bell-graves) the urns are completely covered by an inverted larger vessel. As graves rarely overlap, they may have been marked by wooden posts or stones.
Stone-pacing graves are typical of the Unstrut group.
Grave gifts
The urn containing the cremated bones is often accompanied by other, smaller ceramic vessels, like bowls and cups. They may have contained food. The urn is often placed in the centre of the assemblage. Often, these vessels have not been placed on the pyre. Metal grave gifts include razors, weapons that often have been deliberately destroyed (bent or broken), bracelets, pendants and pins. Metal grave gifts become rarer towards the end of the Urnfield culture, while the number of hoards increase.
Burnt animal bones are often found, they may have been placed on the pyre as food. The marten bones in the grave of
Seddin may have belonged to a garment (pelt).
Amber or
glass beads (Pfahlbautönnchen) are luxury items.
Upper-class burials
Upper-class burials were placed in wooden chambers, rarely stone
cists or chambers with a stone-paved floor and covered with a
barrow or
cairn. The graves contain especially finely made pottery, animal bones, usually pork, sometimes gold rings or sheets, in exceptional cases miniature wagons.
Some of these rich burials contain the remains of more than one person. In this case, women and children are normally seen as sacrifices. Until more is known about the status distribution and the social structure of the late Bronze Age, this interpretation should be viewed with caution.
Towards the end of the Urnfield period, some bodies were burnt in situ and then covered by a barrow, reminiscent of the burial of
Patroclus as described by
Homer and the burial of
Beowulf (with the additional
ship burial element). In the early Iron Age, inhumation became the rule again.
Material culture
Pottery
The pottery is normally well made, with a smooth surface and a normally sharply carinated profile. Some forms are thought to imitate metal prototypes. Biconical pots with cylindrical necks are especially characteristic. There is some incised decoration, but a large part of the surface was normally left plain. Fluted decoration is common. In the Swiss pile dwellings, the incised decoration was sometimes inlaid with
tin foil.
Pottery kilns were already known (Elchinger Kreuz, Bavaria), as is indicated by the homogeneous surface of the vessels as well.
Other vessels include cups of beaten sheet-
bronze with riveted handles (type Jenišovice) and large
cauldrons with cross attachments. Wooden vessels have only been preserved in waterlogged contexts, for example from Auvernier (Neuchâtel), but may have been quite widespread.
Tools
Typical bronze tools include winged and socketed
axes. In the North, stone axes were still in use.
Weapons
The leaf-shaped Urnfield
sword could be used for slashing, in contrast to the stabbing-swords of the preceding tumulus culture. It commonly possessed a
ricasso. The
hilt was normally made from bronze as well. It was cast separately and consisted of a different alloy. These solid hilted swords were known since Bronze D (Rixheim swords). Other sword have tanged blades and probably had a wood, bone, or antler hilt. Flange-hilted swords had organic inlays in the hilt.
Swords include Auvernier, Kressborn-Hemigkofen, Erbenheim, Möhringen, Weltenburg, Hemigkofen and Tachlovice-types.
Protective gear like
shields,
cuirasses,
greaves and
helmets is extremely rare and almost never found in burials.
The best-known example of a bronze shield comes from
Plzeň in Bohemia and has a riveted handhold. Comparable pieces have been found in Germany, Western Poland, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland. They are supposed to have been made in upper Italy or the
Eastern Alps and imitate wooden shields. Irish bogs have yielded examples of leather shields (Clonbrinn, Co. Wexford).
Bronze cuirasses are known since Bronze D (
Čaka, grave II, Slovakia). Complete bronze cuirasses have been found in Saint Germain du Plain, nine examples, one inside the other, in Marmesse, Haute Marne (France), fragments in Albstadt-Pfeffingen (Germany). Bronze dishes (phalerae) may have been sewn on a leather armour.
Greaves of richly decorated sheet-bronze are known from Kloštar Ivani? (Croatia) and the Paulus cave near
Beuron (Germany).
Chariots
About a dozen
wagon-burials of four wheeled wagons with bronze fittings are known from the early Urnfield period. They include Hart an der Altz (Kr. Altötting), Mengen (Kr. Sigmaringen), Poing (Kr. Ebersberg), Königsbronn (Kr. Heidenheim) from Germany and St. Sulpice (
Vaud), Switzerland. In Alz, the chariot had been placed on the pyre, pieces of bone are attached to the partially melted metal of the axles. Bronze (one-part)
bits appear at the same time. Two-part horse bits are only known from late Urnfield contexts and may be due to eastern influence. Wood- and bronze spoked wheels are known from
Stade (Germany), a wooden spoked wheel from Mercurago, Italy. Wooden dish-wheels have been excavated at
Corcelettes, Switzerland and the
Wasserburg-Buchau, Germany (diameter 80 cm).
In Milavče near
Domažlice,
Bohemia, a four-wheeled miniature bronze wagon bearing a large
cauldron (diameter 30 cm) contained a cremation. This exceptionally rich burial was covered by a
barrow. The wagon from
Acholshausen (Bavaria) comes from a male burial.
Such wagons are known from the
Nordic Bronze Age as well. The wagon from
Skallerup, Denmark, contained a cremation as well. At Pekatel (Kr. Schwerin) in
Mecklenburg a cauldron-wagon and other rich grave goods accompanied an inhumation under a barrow (
Montelius III/IV). Another example comes from
Ystad in Sweden. South-eastern European examples include Kanya in Hungary and
Orăştie in
Romania. Clay miniature wagons, sometimes with waterfowl were known there since the middle Bronze Age (Dupljaja, Vojvodina, Serbia).
The
Lusatian chariot from Burg (
Brandenburg, Germany) has three
wheels on a single
axle, on which waterfowl perch. The grave of
Gammertingen (Kr. Sigmaringen, Germany) contained two socketed horned applications that probably belonged to a miniature wagon comparable to the Burg example, together with six miniature spoked wheels.
Iron
An iron ring from Vorwohlde (Kr. Grafschaft Diepholz, Germany) dating to the 15th century BC is the earliest evidence of iron in Central Europe. During the late Bronze Age, Iron was used to decorate the hilts of swords (Schwäbisch-Hall-Gailenkirchen, Unterkrumbach, Kr. Hersbruck) and knives (Dotternhausen, Plettenberg, Germany) and pins. The use of
iron for weapons and domestic items in Europe only started in the following
Hallstatt culture. The widespread use of iron for tools only occurred in the late
Iron Age La Tène culture.
UKRazor.jpg
Settlements
The number of settlements increased sharply in comparison with the preceding tumulus culture. Unfortunately, few have been comprehensively excavated.
Fortified settlements, often on hilltops or in river-bends, are typical for the urnfield culture. They are heavily fortified with dry-stone or wooden ramparts. Excavations of open settlements are rare, but they show that large 3-4 aisled houses built with wooden posts and wall of
wattle and daub were common. Pit dwellings are known as well, they might have served as cellars.
Open settlements
The houses were one or two-aisled. Some were quite small, 4.5 m x 5 m at the
Runde Berg (Urach, Germany), 5-8m long in
Künzig (Bavaria, Germany), others up to 20 m long. They were built with wooden posts and walls of wattle and daub.
At the Velatice-settlement of Lovčičky (Moravia, CR) 44 houses have been excavated.
Large bell shaped
storage pits are known from the Knovíz-culture. The settlement of
Radonice (Louny) contained over 100 pits. They were most probably used to store grain and demonstrate a considerable surplus-production.
Pile dwellings
On lakes of southern Germany and Switzerland, numerous
pile dwellings were constructed. They consist either of simple one-room houses made of wattle and daub, or
log-built. The settlement at
Zug, Switzerland, was destroyed by fire and gives important insights into the material culture and the settlement organisation of this period. It has yielded a number of dendro-dates as well.
Fortified settlements
Fortified hilltop settlements become common in the Urnfield period. Often a steep spur was used, where only part of the circumference had to be fortified. Depending on the locally available materials, dry-stone walls, gridded timbers filled with stones or soil or plank and palisade type ''
pfostenschlitzmauer'' fortifications were used. Other fortified settlements utilise rivers-bends and swampy areas.
At the
hill fort of Hořovice near Beroun (CR), 50 ha were surrounded by a stone wall. Most settlements are much smaller. Metal working is concentrated in the fortified settlements. On the Runde Berg near
Urach, Germany, 25 stone
moulds have been found.
Hillforts are interpreted as central places. Some scholars see the emergence of hill forts as a sign of increased warfare. Most hillforts were abandoned at the end of the Bronze Age.
As far as we know, there are no special dwellings for an upper class, but few settlements have been excavated to any extent. In the
Franche-Comté, caves were utilised for settlement, maybe in times of trouble.
Hoards
Hoards are very common in the Urnfield culture. The custom is abandoned at the end of the Bronze Age. They were often deposited in rivers and wet places like swamps. As these spots were often quite inaccessible, they most probably represent gifts to the Gods. Other hoards contain either broken or miscast objects that were probably intended for reuse by bronze smiths. As Late Urnfield hoards often contain the same range of objects as earlier graves, some scholars interpret hoarding as a way to supply personal equipment for the hereafter. In the river Trieux,
Côtes du Nord, complete swords were found together with numerous antlers of red deer that may have had a religious significance as well.
Cult
The
Kyffhäuser caves in
Thuringia contain headless skeletons and split human and animal bones that have been interpreted as sacrifices. Other deposits include grain, knotted vegetable fibres and hair and bronze objects (axes, pendants and pins). The
Ith-caves (
Lower Saxony) have yielded comparative material.
In the Knovíz-culture, human bones with cut-marks and traces of burning have been found in settlement pits. They have been interpreted as evidence for
cannibalism. As these bones form a large part of the burials known this may have been a quite regular treatment including the ritual manipulation and dismemberment of human corpses.
Moon-shaped clay
fire dogs are thought to have a religious significance, as well as crescent shaped razors.
An obsession with waterbirds is indicated by numerous pictures and three-dimensional representations. Combined with the hoards deposited in rivers and swamps, it indicates religious beliefs connected with water. This has led some scholars to believe in serious droughts during the late Bronze Age.
Sometimes the water-birds are combined with circles, the so called sun-barque-motif.
Economy
Cattle, pigs, sheep and goats were kept, as well as horses and dogs, and maybe
geese. The
cattle were rather small, with a height of 1.20 m at the
withers. Horses were not much bigger with a mean of 1.25 m.
Forest clearance was intensive in the Urnfield period. Probably open meadows were created for the first time, as shown by
pollen analysis. This led to increased
erosion and sediment-load of the rivers.
Wheat and
barley were cultivated, together with
pulses and the
horse bean.
Poppy seeds were used for oil or as a
drug.
Millet and
oats were cultivated for the first time in Hungary and Bohemia,
rye was already cultivated, further west it was only a noxious weed.
Flax seems to have been of reduced importance, maybe because mainly
wool was used for clothes.
Hazel nuts, apples, pears, sloes and acorns were collected. Some rich graves contain bronze
sieves that have been interpreted as
wine-sieves (Hart an der Alz). This beverage would have been imported from the South, but supporting evidence is lacking.
In the
lacustrine settlement of Zug, remains of a broth made of
spelt and
millet have been found. In the lower-Rhine urnfields, leavened
bread was often placed on the pyre and burnt fragments have thus been preserved.
Wool was spun (finds of
spindle whorls are common) and woven on the
warp-weighted loom, bronze needles (''Unteruhldingen'') were used for
sewing.
There is some suggestion that the Urnfield culture too is associated with a wetter climatic period than the earlier Tumulus cultures. This may be associated with the diversion of the mid-latitude winter storms north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, possibly associated with drier conditions in the Mediterranean basin.
Ethnic ascription
As there are no written sources, the languages spoken by the bearers of the Urnfield culture are unknown. Some scholars consider them to be the ancestors of the
Celts. Urnfield material is found in some of the areas where later people were to be called "Kelt" or "Galatoi" by classical authors (who had never been there). As we do not know how processes of
ethnogenesis work or how long they last, and whether a common material culture is always associated with social and political unity, this is highly contested.
Migrations
The numerous hoards of the Urnfield culture and the existence of fortified settlements (
hill forts) were taken as evidence for widespread warfare and upheaval by some scholars.
Written sources describe several collapses and upheavals in the Eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia and the Levant around the time of the Urnfield origins:
★ Israelite
exodus from Egypt ca. 1250 BC
★ end of the
Mycenean culture with a conventional date of ca. 1200 BC
★ destruction of
Troy VI ca. 1200 BC
★ Battles of
Ramses III against the
Sea Peoples, 1195-1190 BC
★ end of the
Hittite empire 1180 BC
★ settlement of the
Philistines in Palestine ca. 1170 BC
Some scholars, among them Wolfgang Kimmig and P. Bosch-Gimpera have postulated a Europe-wide wave of migrations. The so-called
Dorian invasion of Greece was placed in this context as well (although more recent evidence suggests that the Dorians moved in 1100 BCE into a post Mycenaean vacuum, rather than precipitating the collapse). Better methods of dating have shown that these events are not as closely connected as once thought.
More recently Robert Drews, after having reviewed and dismissed the migration hypothesis, has suggested that the observed cultural associations may be in fact partly explained as the result of a new kind of warfare based upon the slashing Niue sword,
[1] and with bands of infrantry replacing chariots in warfare. Drews suggests that the political instability that this brought to centralised states based upon maryannu chariotry caused the breakdown of these polities.
Related cultures
The eastern European
Lusatian culture forms part of the urnfield tradition, but continues into the
Iron Age without a notable break.
The
Piliny culture in northern
Hungary and
Slovakia grew from the tumulus culture, but used urn burials as well. The pottery shows strong links to the
Gáva-culture, but in the later phases, a strong influence of the
Lusatian culture is found.
Urnfields are found in the French
Languedoc from the 9th to 8th centuries. The change in burial custom was most probably influenced by developments further east.
Sites
Important French cemeteries include Châtenay and Lingolsheim (Alsace).
Sources
★ J. M. Coles/A. F. Harding, ''The Bronze Age in Europe'' (London 1979).
★ G. Weber, ''Händler, Kieger, Bronzegießer'' (Kassel 1992).
★ Ute Seidel, ''Bronzezeit''. Württembergisches Landesmuseum Stuttgart (Stuttgart 1995).
★
Konrad Jażdżewski, ''Urgeschichte Mitteleuropas'' (Wrocław 1984).
★ Association Abbaye de Daoulas (eds.), ''Avant les Celtes. L'Europe a l'age du Bronze'' (Daoulas 1988).
See also
★
Beaker culture
References
1. Drews. R (1993) "The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C." Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-04811-8
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