(Redirected from Uthman)
:''For other uses of the name, see
Uthman (name).''
'‘UthmÄn ibn ‘AffÄn' ('عثمان بن عÙان') (c.
580 -
July 17 656) was a companion of the prophet
Muhammad. An early convert to Islam, he played a major role in early Islamic history, most notably as the third
Caliph of
Islamic state (
644 to death) and the compilation of the
Qur'an. Revered by
Sunni Muslims as one of the the ''
Rashidun'' (four rightly guided Caliphs]) of Islam, he is sometimes criticized by the
Shia Muslims.
Biography
Early life
Uthman was born in
Taif and not in
Makkah. As Taif is situated on a hill, the presumption is that Uthman was born during the summer months, since wealthy Makkans usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Taif. He was born into the wealthy
Umayyad (
Banu Umayya) clan of the
Quraish tribe in
Makkah, seven years after
Muhammad. Uthman's father, Affan, died young when travelling abroad, but left much wealth for Uthman to inherit. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him a millionaire, and one of the richest men among the Quraishi tribe
[1].
Conversion to Islam
Uthman was an early convert to Islam, and is said to have spent a great deal of his wealth on charity. On return from a business trip from Syria in 611 A.D, Uthman came to know that
Muhammad had declared his mission, after a long discussion with his friend
Abu Bakr he decided to convert to Islam, and
Abu Bakr took him to Muhammad to whom he declared his faith. Uthman thus became the second adult male to converte to
Islam, after
Abu Bakr. His conversion to
Islam angered his clan, who strongly opposed Muhammad's teachings
[2]. The only two people who supported Uthman's decision were Saadi, a maternal aunt of Uthman, and Umm Kulsum, who was his step-sister and who had also converted to
Islam as well. Because of his conversion to
Islam, Uthman's wives deserted him and he subsequently divorced them. Muhammad then asked Uthman to marry his daughter
Ruqayyah bint Muhammad.
Migration to Abyssinia
Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to
Aksumite Ethiopia in
614-
615, along with 11 other men and 11 women
Muslims. As Uthman already had some business contacts in
Abyssinia, Uthman continued to practice his profession as a trader. He worked hard, and soon his business flourished. After two years, the news spread among the
Muslims in
Abyssinia that the
Quraish of
Makkah had accepted
Islam, and that convinced Uthman, Ruqayya, and some other
Muslims return to Makkah. When they reached Makkah however, it transpired that the news about Quraish's acceptance of Islam was false. Some of the Muslims who had come from Abyssinia returned, but Uthman and Ruqayya decided to stay. In Makkah, Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in
Abyssinia stood in good stead, and the business of Uthman prospered once again
[3].
Migration to Medina
In 622 A.D Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to
Madinah. They were amongst the third batch of the
Muslims who migrated to
Medina. On arrival in Medina Uthman stayed with ''Aus bin Thabit Al Ansari'' of the ''Najjar''
tribe. After a short while, Uthman purchased a house of his own and shifted there. Being one of the richest merchants of Makkah, and having amassed a considerable fortune, Uthman did not need any financial help from his Ansari brother, as he brought all his wealth with him to Medina. In Medina the
Muslims were generally farmers and were not very interested in trade, and thus most of the trading that took place in the town was handled by the
Jews. There was thus considerable space for the
Muslims in promoting trade. Uthman took advantage of this position and established himself as a trader in Medina. He worked hard and honestly, and his business flourished. Soon he became one of the richest men in Medina as he had been one of the richest merchants in Makkah.
[4].
Life in Madina
In 624 A.D, some Muslims from Medina departed to assist in the capture of a Quraish caravan. At this time, Uthman's wife Ruqayya suffered from malaria and then caught small pox. Uthman stayed at
Madinah to look after the ailing Ruqayya, and did not join those who left with Muhammad. Ruqayya died during the time the
Battle of Badr was being fought, and the news of the victory of Badr reached Madina as Ruqayya was being buried. Muhammad could not attend her funeral. Uthman participated in the
Battle of Uhud which was fought in 625 A.D, and after that battle he married Muhammad's second daughter,
Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad. The next year, Uthman's son
Abd-Allah ibn Uthman died. When the
Battle of the Trench was fought in 627 A.D, Uthman was in charge of a sector of Medina. After the
Battle of the Trench a campaign was undertaken against the Jews of
Banu Qaynuqa, and when the
Jews were taken captive, the question of the disposal of the slaves became a problem. Uthman solved the issue by purchasing all the slaves, and depositing their price in the ''Baitul Mal'' (Treasury). Any of these slaves who accepted
Islam were set free by Uthman in the name of
Allah.
Treaty of Hudaibiyah
In March of
628 A.D (
6 Hijrah), Muhammad set out for
Mecca to perform the ritual pilgrimage of
Hajj. The
Quraish denied the
Muslim entry into the city and posted themselves outside
Mecca, determined to show resistance even though the
Muslims had no intention or preparation for battle. Muhammad camped outside
Mecca at Hudaybiyyah and sent Uthman ibn Affan as his envoy to meet with the leaders of Quraish and negotiate Muslim entry into the city. The Quraish made Ê»UthmÄn to stay longer in Mecca than he originally planned and refused to inform the Muslims of his whereabouts. This caused the
Muslims to believe that Uthman had been killed by the people of
Quraish. On this occasion, Muhammad gathered his nearly 1400 soldiers and called them to pledge to fight until death and avenge the death of UthmÄn. This pledge took place under a tree and was thus known as the Pledge of the Tree. Each companion came before Muhammad and, with his hand on top of Muhammad's, pledged to fight until death and avenge the death of UthmÄn. It is reported that Muhammad placed his one hand on top of the other and pledged on behalf of Uthman as well. The pledge was successful in demonstrating to the
Quraish the determination of the Muslims. They soon released UthmÄn and sent down an ambassador of their own, Suhail ibn Amr to negotiate terms of a treaty that later became known as the
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.
Muhammad's last years
In 629 A.D, Uthman participated in the
Battle of Khaybar. Later that year, he followed Muhammad to perform
Umrah in
Makkah. Uthman visited his mother in
Mecca to find that his family was not as hostile to
Islam as they used to be. In 630 A.D Quraish broke the treaty of Hudaibiyah, and Muslims attacked and conquered
Mecca. General amnesty was granted to the people of
Makkah, though an exception was made in the case of half a dozen people. Amongst those not granted amnesty was Abdullah bin Saad, a foster brother of Uthman. He would later be forgiven by Muhammad because of Uthman, as Abdullah's mother appealed to Uthman. Following the
Conquest of Mecca Uthman's family converted to
Islam and he rejoined his mother and siblings. He also participated in the
Battle of Hunain that same year under Muhammad, followed by
Siege of Taif. To Uthman, the conquest of Makkah and Taif were of particular significance, as he had considerable property in both Makkah and Taif, and he could now profitably develop this property. He was also able to set up sub-offices of his business at Makkah and Taif. Uthman's wife and daughter of Muhammad,
Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad died soon after the conquest of Makkah. In 630 C.E. Muhammad decided to lead an expedition to
Tabuk on the
Syrian border. In order to finance the expedition Muhammad invited contributions from his followers. Uthman made the largest contribution: one thousand diners in cash, a thousand camels for transport, and horses for the cavalry. Muhammad greatly appreciated the services of Uthman. In 631 A.D Uthman along with other
Muslims moved to
Makkah to perform Hajj under
Abu Bakr, Muhammad stayed in
Madinah. In
Makkah Uthman married Umm Saeed Fatima bint Al Walid b Abd Shams, a Quraishi lady. Thereafter Uthman returned to Madina with his bride. In 632 A.D Uthman along with Muhammad participated in the
The Farewell Pilgrimage[1]. In 632 A.D Muhammad died, and Uthman, like other Muslims, was in great grief.
Caliph Abu Bakr's era (632–634)
Uthman had a very close relationship with
Abu Bakr, as it was at the hands of Abu Bakr that Uthman had converted to
Islam. When Abu Bakr was elected as the
Caliph, Uthman was the first person after
Umar to offer allegiance to Abu Bakr. During the apostasy wars (
Ridda wars), Uthman remained at Medina, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his death bed
Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman, that his successor was to be
Umar[6].
Caliph Umar's Era (634–644)
Uthman was the first person to offer his allegiance to
Umar. During the reign of
Umar, Uthman remained at
Madinah as his adviser, and a member of
Umar's advisory council.
Umar did not allow the Companions including Uthman to leave
Madinah. The reason for this was that Umar didn't wish for the companions who were famous and respected among the Muslims to spread and have their own follower, which would have resulted in unnecessary divisions in Islam. And in Islam there is only one leader (Ameer al Momineen). During the reign of
Umar, considerable wealth flowed into the public treasury. Uthman advised that some amount be reserved in the treasury for future needs, instead of giving all as stipends to the
Muslims, and this was accepted by
Umar. A controversy then arose about the land in conquered lands: the army was of the view that all lands in conquered territories should be distributed among the soldiers of the conquering
army, but others thought that the lands should remain as the property of the original owners, and the lands without claimants should be declared as state property. Uthman supported the latter view and this view was ultimately accepted. At the time of the conquest of
Jerusalem the
Christians asked that
Umar should come to
Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city. Uthman was of the view that it was not necessary for the
Caliph of the
Muslims to go to
Jerusalem and that the enemy, when defeated, would surrender the city unconditionally. There was much force in Uthman's argument, but in order to win the good will of the
Christians,
Umar decided to go to
Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city. In the time of Umar, a severe famine broke out in the country, large caravan belonging to Uthman carrying large supplies of food grains served the poor well.
Election of Uthman
Main articles: The election of Uthman
Umar on his death bed accordingly constituted a committee of six people to choose the next
Caliph from amongst themselves.
This committee was comprised of:
★
Ali ibn Abu Talib
★
Uthman ibn Affan
★
Abdur Rahman bin Awf
★
Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas
★
Zubayr ibn al-Awwam
★
Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah
Umar asked that after his death the committee should reach the final decision within three days, and the next
Caliph should take the oath of office on the fourth day. If
Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah joined the committee within this period, he was to take part in the deliberations, but if he did not return to
Madinah within this period, the other members of the committee could proceed to take the decision.
Abdur Rahman bin Awf withdrew his eligibility to be appointed as Caliph in order to act as a moderator.
Abdur Rahman bin Awf began his task by interviewing each member of the committee separately, asking to whom they will cast their vote. When Ali was asked, he said ''to Uthman''. When Uthman was asked, he said ''to Ali'', Zubayr said to ''Ali or Uthman'', Saad said ''to Uthman''
[6]. After Abdul Rahman consulted the other leaders of public opinion in
Madinah, who were in favor of Uthman, he arrived at the conclusion that the majority of the people favored the election of Uthman. On the fourth day after the death of Umar,
11 November 644 A.D.,
5th Muharram 24
Hijrah, Uthman was elected as the third
Caliph, with the ''title'', "
Amir al-Mu'minin".
Reign as a Caliph (644–656)
On assuming office, Uthman issued a number of directives to the officials all over the dominions ordering them to hold fast the laws made by his predecessor
Umar. Uthman's realm extended in the
west to
Morocco, in the
east to
South east Pakistan, and in the
north to
Armenia and
Azerbaijan. During his caliphate a
navy was organized, administrative divisions of the state were revised, and many public projects were expanded and completed. Uthman sent prominent
companions of Muhammad as his personal deputies to various provinces to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the condition of the people. Uthman ruled for twelve years. The first six years were marked by internal peace and tranquility and remianed the most popular Caliph among all the
Rashidun Caliphs, but during the second half of his caliphate a rebellion arose. Uthman was the last caliph to enjoy unity in the Muslim world, as all later Caliphs would have opposition. Uthman have a distinction to work for the expansion of
Islam, he sent the first official Muslim envoy to
China in
650. The envoy, headed by
Sa`d ibn AbÄ« WaqqÄs, arrived in the Tang capital,
Chang'an, in
651 via the overseas route.
Huis generally consider this date to be the official founding of Islam in China. ''The Ancient Record of the Tang Dynasty'' recorded the historic meeting, where the envoy greeted
Emperor Gaozong of Tang China and tried to convert him to Islam. Although the envoy failed to convince the Emperor to embrace Islam, the Emperor allowed the envoy to proselytize in China and ordered the establishment of the first Chinese
mosque in the capital to show his respect for the religion. He also sent official Muslim envoys to
Sri Lanka.
Reforms of Uthman's era
Economic reforms
Uthman was a shrewd business man and a successful trader from his youth, his shrewdness in economical matters contributed a lot to
Islamic empire. Caliph
Umar had fixed the
allowance of the people. On assuming office, Uthman increased it by 25 %. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of
lands in conquered territories.
Umar had placed restriction on the purchase of
agricultural lands in conquered territories
[8]. Uthman withdrew this restriction, [8] in view that the trade could not flourish under these restrictions. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury [9]. Under Umar it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants, but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The
army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar[10]. In the time of Uthman there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably
[6]. In the time of Uthman the army once again raised the demand for the distribution of the lands in conquered territories among the fighting soldiers. Uthman turned down the demand; it favored the
Dhimmis (non-Muslims in Islamic state) a lot.
The coins were of persian origin, and had image of last persian emperor, Muslim added the sentence ''Bismillah'' to it.
The first Islamic
coins were struck during the caliphate of Uthman, in
651 A.D, these were the Persian
Dirhams that had image of Persian emperor Yezghard III with addition of the Arabic sentence 'Bismillah(بسم الله)' (''begin from name of Allah''). How ever the first original minting of Islamic
Dirham was done in
695 A.D during Umayyad period.
Caliph Umar the predecessor of Uthman was very strict in the use of money from the public treasury. Apart from the meager allowance that had been sanctioned in his favor
Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gift from any quarter. During the time of Uthman there was some relaxation in such strictness. Uthman did not draw any allowance from the
treasury for his personal use nor took any salary, he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to accept gifts from certain quarters
[1]. Uthman honestly felt that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one had the right to criticize him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far reaching effects; Muslims as well as non-Muslims of the
Islamic empire enjoyed an economically prospered life during the reign of Caliph Uthman
[11].
Public work
Under Uthman the people became economically more prosperous, and they invested their money in the construction of
buildings. Many new and larger buildings were constructed through out the
empire. During the caliphate of Uthman as many as five thousand new
mosques were constructed. Uthman enlarged, extended, and embellished the
Masjid-e-Nabawi at
Madinah. He enlarged and extended the
Kaaba as well. With the expansion in
army, the
cantonments were extended and enlarged. More
barracks were constructed for the soldiers.
Stables for the
cavalry were extended. Uthman provided separate pastures for State
camels. During the caliphate of Uthman,
guest houses were provided in main cities to provide comfort to the merchants coming from far away places. More and more
markets were constructed. Uthman appointed Market Officers to look after markets. In
Iraq,
Egypt and
Persia numerous
canals were dug which stimulated the process of agricultural development. In the cities, particular attention was directed towards the provision of
water supply. In
Madinah, a number of
wells were dug to provide drinking water for the people. The water supply in
Makkah was also improved. Water was brought to
Kufa and
Basra by canals. Shuaibia was the port for
Makkah. It was inconvenient. Uthman selected
Jeddah as the site of the new
seaport, and a new port was built there. Uthman also reformed the
department of
Police in cities.
Administration
In his testament,
Caliph Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. For obe year Uthman maintained the pattern of political administration as it stood under Umar, latter he made some amendments.
Under
Umar Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Egypt. Uthman made Egypt one province. Uthman created a new province for
North Africa. Under Umar
Syria was divided into two provinces. Uthman made Syria one province.
During Uthman’s reign the empire was divided into twelve
provinces. These were:
#
Madinah
#
Makkah
#
Yemen
#
Kufa
#
Basra
#
Jazira
#
Fars
#
Azerbaijan
#
Khurasan
#
Syria
#
Egypt
#
North Africa
The
provinces were further divided into
districts (more than 100 districts in the empire) and each district or main city had its own
Governor,
Chief Judge and
Amil(
tax collector). The
Governors were appointed by Uthman. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main
mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them. Uthman appointed his kinsmen as governors of four provinces namely:
Egypt,
Syria,
Busra and
Kufa [12]. The kindest explanation for this reliance on his kin is that the
Islamic empire had expanded so far, so fast, that it was becoming extremely difficult to govern, and that Uthman felt that he could trust his own kin not to revolt against him. However
shia Muslims did not see this as prudence; they saw it as
nepotism, and an attempt to rule like a king rather than as the first among equals.
Qur'an
Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which compiled the text of the
Qur'an as it exists today. The reason was that various Muslim centers, like
Kufa and
Damascus, had begun to develop their own traditions for reciting and writing down the Qur'an.
This copy of Quran is believed to be the oldest one, compiled during Caliph Uthman's reign.
Uthman feared that the nascent Islamic empire would fall apart in religious controversy if everyone did not have access to the original text of Qur'an. Towards the end of his reign, the committee finished compiling the text, and Uthman had it copied and sent copies to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, commanding that variant versions of the Qur'an be destroyed, and only the original version used.
Zayd ibn Thabit was put in charge of the operation
[A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims on Al-Islam.org [2]]
(Note that
John Wansbrough and some Western historians believe that the Qur'an was completed later than Uthman's time; theirs is a minority opinion. See the article on the
Qur'an.)
Military expansion
Byzantine attempt to re-capture Egypt
With the death of
Caliph Umar and dispossal of
Amr ibn al-Aas from the governorship of
Egypt, the
Byzantines seized
Alexandria, thinking it to be the right time to take action. Uthman again sent
Amr ibn al-Aas to defend
Egypt and made him governor and Commander-in-chief of
Egypt. Amr defeated the
Byzantine forces in the
Battle of Naqyus, a few hundred miles from
Fustat. After the defeat of the
Byzantine army at Naqyus,
Muslim forces laid siege to
Alexandria, which fell when a
Copt opened the gates of city one night, in return for amnesty.
After re-conquering
Alexandria,
Amr ibn al-Aas ordered the demolition of the walls of the city to obstruct any future invasion by Byzantine forces. Amr was again dismissed from his post due to his loose financial administration.
Conquest of North Africa
After the withdrawal of the
Byzantines from
Egypt,
North Africa had declared its independence under its king Gregory. The dominions of Gregory extended from the borders of
Egypt to
Morocco.
Abdullah Ibn Sa'ad use to send raiding parties to the west. As a result of these raids the
Muslims got considerable booty The success of these raids made
Abdullah Ibn Sa'ad feel that a regular campaign should be undertaken for the conquest of
North Africa.
Uthman gave him permission after considering it in ‘’Majlis al shura’’, a force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The
Muslim forces assembled in
Barqa in
Cyrenaica, from there they marched west to capture
Tripoli, after Tripoli they the army marched to
Sufetula the capital of King Gregory, he was defeated and killed in the battle due to superb tactics used by
Abdullah ibn Zubayr. After the
battle of Sufetula the people of
North Africa sued for peace. They agreed to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing
North Africa, the
Muslims preferred to make North Africa a
vassal state. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the
Muslim forces withdrew to
Barqa.
First Muslim invasion of Iberian peninsula(Spain)
According to the general books of
Islamic history the conquest of
Spain is attributed to
Tariq ibn Ziyad and
Musa ibn Nusair in
711 -
712 C.E, in the time of the
Umayyad Caliph Walid ibn Abd al-Malik. According to
Muslim historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari[13],
Spain was first invaded some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman. Other promenient
Muslim historians like
Ibn Kathir[14] also have quoted the same narration.
According to the account of al-Tabari, when
North Africa had been duly conquered by
Abdullah Ibn Sa'ad, two of his generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi' ibn Abdul Qais, were commissioned to invade coastal areas of
Spain by
sea. On this occasion Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force. In the course of the letter, Uthman said:
No details of the campaigns in
Spain during the
caliphate of Uthman are given by
al-Tabari or by any other
historian. The account of al-Tabari is merely to the effect that an
Arab force aided by a
Berber force landed in
Spain, and succeeded in conquering coastal areas of
Al-Andalus. We do not know where the
Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of
Spain did they actually conquer. Anyhow it is clear that the
Muslims did conquer some parts of
Spain during the caliphate of Uthman. Presumably the
Muslims established some colonies on the coastland of
Spain. There are reasons to presume that these
Muslims entered into trade relations with the rest of
Spain and other parts of Europe. The areas were lost shortly after because of the general disorder in the empire.
Nubia (sudan)
A campaign was undertaken against
Nubia during the
caliphate of
Umar in 642 A.D, but the campaign was inconclusive and
Muslim forces were pulled out of
Nubia with out any success.
Ten years latter in
652 Uthman’s governor
Egypt,
Abdullah ibn Saad sent an other army to
Nubia,
Muslim forces panetrated deeper into Nubia and laid the siege of the Nubian capital city of
Dongola. Muslims demolished the
cathedral in the center of the city, the battle was once again inconclusive, because of finest Nubian archers who let loose a shower of arrows aimed at the eyes of the Muslim warriors. As the Muslims were not able to overpower the Nubians, they accepted the offer of peace from the nubian king. According to the treaty that was signed, each side agreed not to make any aggression against the other. Each side agreed to afford free passage to the other party through its territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360
slaves to
Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply
grain to Nubia according to demand.
Conquest of Islands of Cyprus, Rhodes and Sicily
During
Umar's reign governor of
Syria Muawiyah, sent a request to built a
naval force to invade the islands in
Mediterranean Sea,
Umar rejected the purposal because of risk of death of soldiers in sea. During his reign Uthman gave
Muawiyah permission to make navy after concerning the matter closely. The
Muslim force landed on
Cyprus in
649 C.E. There was only a small
Byzantine garrison on the
island which was overpowered without any difficulty. The islanders submitted to the
Muslims, and agreed to pay a tribute of 7,000
dinars per year. The conquest of Cyprus was the first naval conquest of the Muslims. After Cyprus Muslim naval fleet headed towards
Rhodes islands and conquered them with out much resistance. In
652-
654 A.D,
Muslims lunched a naval campaign on
sicily, they succedded in capturing a large part of
Sicily (
Italy), soon Uthman was murdered and no further expansion was made, and Musims accordingly retreated from
Sicily.
Byzantine attempt to re-conquer Syria
After the death of
Umar, the
Byzantine emperor Constantine III decided to re-capture the
Levant lost to
Muslims during
Umar’s reign. A full-scale invasion of
Syria was planned and a force of 80,000 soldiers was send to reconquer
Syria.
Muawiyah the governor of
Syria, called for reinforcements and Uthman ordered the governor of
Kufa to send a contingent, which together with the
Syrians defeated the
Byzantine army.
Re-Conquest of Armenia and Georgia
Armenia and
Georgia were conquered during the reign of
Caliph Umar, first under the command of
Khalid ibn Walid and
Ayadh ibn Ghanam. Later Habib ibn Muslaimah was sent for a full-scale invasion up to the
Black sea. During Uthman’s reign a revolt broke out and Uthman commissioned Habib ibn Muslaimah to re-conquer Armenia and Georgia. The whole of the region was re-conquered. There was not much fighting, and on the approach of the
Muslim armies, the
Armenians laid down arms, and accepted the usual terms of the payment of
Jizya (tribute). Armenia, Georgia and
Azerbaijan were made one province under the name Azerbaijan; Ashat ibn Qais was the last governor of this province during Uthman's reign.
Re-conquest of Tarsus (Asia Minor) region
The
Byzantine forts in the region of
Tarsus were conquered during
Umar’s reign soon after the
Conquest of Antioch by
Khalid ibn Walid. During Uthman’s reign the region was recaptured by
Byzantine forces and a campaign was undertaken to regain control of the region. Control of this region was strengthened after the conquest of
Cyprus and
Rhodes.
Re-conquest of Fars (Iran)
The province of
Fars in
Persia was conquered by the
Muslims during the
caliphate of
Umar. In Uthman’s reign like other provinces of
Persia,
Fars also broke into revolt. Uthman directed
Abdullah ibn Aamir the Governor of
Basra to take immediate steps to retrieve the situation. He accordingly marched with a large force to
Persepolis; the city surrendered and agreed to pay
tribute. From here the army marched to Al j bard, where after a brief resistance the
Muslims captured the city, and the citizens agreed to pay tribute. Thereafter the Muslim force advanced to Jor. The
Persians gave battle but they were defeated and the city was captured by the
Muslims. Peace was made on the usual term of the payment of
Jizya. While
Muslim army was still in Jor,
Persepolis again broke into revolt;
Abdullah ibn Aamir took forces to Persepolis and laid siege to the city. After a violent battle the
Muslims were able to regain control of the city once again. All leaders among the
Persians who were involved in instigating the revolt were hunted down and executed. With the fall of Persepolis, other cities in
Fars also submitted unconditionally. Thus the Muslims once again became the masters of Fars. Uthman’s appointed governor of Fars, after analyzing the situation, sent
Islamic missionaries to various cities of the region to convert the people to
Islam to avert future revolts. A large number of people embraced
Islam.
Re-conquest of Sistan (Iran and Afghanistan)
The
Persian Empire's province of Sistan in
7th century A.D extended from modern days
iranian province of
Sistan to central
Afghanistan and
Baluchistan province of
Pakistan.
Sistan was captured during the reign of Caliph
Umar, like other provinces of the Persian Empire it also broke into revolt during Uthmans reign in
649 A.D. Uthman directed the governor of
Busra,
Abdullah ibn Aamir to re-conquer the Persian province of Sistan. A column was sent to Sistan under the command of Rabeah ibn Ziyad. The first confrontation took place at Zaliq a border town, during a festival of Persians,
Muslims were victorious. The citizens urged for peace, it is said that the
Muslim commander Rabeah ibn Ziyad stuck a pole in the ground and ask Persians to lay a heap of gold and silver up to the top, once it was done Muslims gave peace to all citizens.
Qarquqya, five miles from Zaliq was captured with out resistance. After that Muslim forces marched to
Zaranj, in modern days south western
Afghanistan. After a long siege Zaranj finally surrendered on usually terms of
Jizya (
tribute). Thereafter Muslims marched north ward in
Afghanistan to subjugate rest of the province and the city of Qarbatin was conquered after a battle. Rabeah returned to Zaranj with large number of booty and captives. Rabeah remained the governor of Sistan for two years, then he left for
Busra, as soon as he left the province of sistan broke into revolt once again and expelled the successor of Rabeah.
Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 A.D
This time after obtaining the approval of Uthman,
Abdullah ibn Aamir appointed Abdur Rahman ibn Sumra to command the Muslim forces in the invasion of Sistan. Abdur Rahman b Sumra led the Muslim forces to Sistan and after crossing the frontier and overcoming resistance in the border towns advanced to Zaranj. The old story of siege, blockade and surrender was repeated. Abdur Rahman ibn Sumra made peace on the Persians undertaking to pay an annual tribute of 20 million
dirham. The Persians also presented 100,000
slaves.
From Zaranj the Muslim force advanced into the interior of
Afghanistan, after capturing the main town of
Helmand all towns were subjugated. Most of the towns surrendered without offering resistance. Muslims reached the hilltown of
Zor, in modern days central Afghanistan. It is said that after capturing the town, Abdulrehman ibn Sumra entered the temple in the town which had a huge idol with eyes of precious stone, he ordered to broke it saying to the priest that he did so to prove that this idol that you people worship is capable of doing nothing, and constructed a mosque on the site of temple. Thereafter Abdulrehman ibn Sumra marched north wards up to the
Hindu Kush Mountains in north east and captured
Ghazni after some resistance and
Kabul with any stiff resistance.
After making these conquests Abdur Rahman returned to the provincial capital
Zaranj and stayed there as Governor till the end of the caliphate of Uthman.
Re-conquest of Tabaristan (Iran)
Tabaristan, which lies south of the
Caspian sea, was conquered during the reign of
Caliph Umar, under the command of
Nuaim ibn Muqarrin’s brother
Suwaid ibn Muqarrin. During Uthman’s reign it broke into revolt, Uthman directed
Saeed ibn Al Aas the Governor General of
Kufa to suppress the revolt. Saeed ibn Al Aas led a strong force of 80,000 warriors to Tabaristan under his personal command. The force included such eminent persons as
Abdullah ibn Abbas;
Abdullah ibn Umar;
Abdullah ibn Zubayr.
Muslim forces first entered
Qom, which surrendered to Muslims, then advanced to Tamlisa which was a coastal town, it gave stiff resistance to the Muslims after a fierce battle Muslims over powered the city. All the men were slaughtered and women and children were made slaves. The harsh treatment of Muslims with the citizens of Tamlisa, struck terror into the hearts of the people of other towns and they lost the will to resist the Muslims.
The Muslim forces thereafter overran
Gilan and other parts of Tabaristan. Even the hilly tract which had not been conquered during the caliphate of Umar was brought under Muslim rule. Having reconquerd the whole of Tabaristan Saeed ibn Al Aas planned to march to
Khorasan, but when he came to know that
Abdullah ibn Aamir the Governor General of
Basra was already in Khorasan, Saeed ibn Al Aas returned to Kufa.
Re-conquest of Azerbaijan and Dagestan
Azerbaijan and
Dagestan (
Russia) was conquered during the reign of
Caliph Umar most of the region surrendered to
Muslims with out fight and agreed to pay tribute, later in his reign it broke into revolt and was re-conquered by force, defeating the forces of
Persian general Asfandyar and his brother
Bahram.
During the Caliphate of Uthman, Utba bin Farqad remained the governor of
Azerbaijan Province which included modern day Azerbaijan,
Georgia,
Armenia and
Dagestan, it was included in the military dominion of the province of
Kufa. When
Walid ibn Uqbah became the governor of
Kufa he called back Utba bin Farqad, in his absence the province
Azerbaijan broke into revolt, Uthman directed
Walid ibn Uqba to undertake the campaign to re-conquer
Azerbaijan. Walid lunched a two pronged attack on
Azerbaijan one from
Armenia and the main army under his personal command from
Kufa. No pitch battle was fought during the conquest and mostly towns surrendered and agreed to pay tribute of 0.8 million
Dirham annually. Ashat ibn Qais was made governor of
Azerbaijan.
Re-conquest of Khurassan(Iran,Afghanistan,Turkmenistan)
Khorasan, the province of the
Persian Empire expended from what is now north eastern
Iran to western
Afghanistan and southern
Turkmenistan. It was conquered during the reign of
Caliph Umar, under the command of Ahnaf ibn Qais. After the death of
Umar, Khorasan broke into revolt under
Persian Emperor Yazdegard III, before he could lead the Persians against
Muslims, he was betrayed and killed in
651 A.D. Caliph Uthman in
651 A.D, sent
Abdullah ibn Aamir the governor of
Busra to re-conquere
Khorasan.
Abdullah ibn Aamir marched with large force from
Busra to
Khorasan. After capturing the main forts in Khorasan he sent many columns to various direction in Khorasan, the strategy was to avoid the Persians to gather in large force. A town of Bayak in modern days
Afghanistan was taken by force,
Muslim commander fell fighting in the battle. After Bayak
Muslims marched towards Tabisan which was captured after little resistance.
Muslim army captured the city of Nishapur after a long siege. Thereafter Muslim army captured other small and bog towns of Khurassan region, after they consolidated there position in Khurassan's most of parts,
Muslims marched towards
Herat in
Afghanistan, which surrendered to
Muslims peacefuly. After getting control of that region in modern days
Afghanistan Muslims marched to wards city of
Merv in modern days
Turkmenistan. The city surrendered along with other towns of the region except one, by name Sang, which was later taken by Force. The campaign in
Khorasan ended with conquest of
Balkh in
654 A.D.
Campaign in Transoxiana
After consolidating the Muslim authority in
Khorasan,
Abdullah ibn Aamir crossed the
Oxus River and invaded
Uzbekistan in southern
Transoxiana. Details of these campaigns are not known but the source books tell us that a greater part of southern
Transoxiana submitted to the
suzerainty of the
Muslim rule.
Re-conquest of Makran (Pakistan)
Makran was conquered during the reign of
Caliph Umar, in
644 A.D when three columns were sent from three different routs to
Makran under the command of Hakam ibn Amr, Shahab ibn Makharaq and Abdullah ibn Utban. At western Bank of
river Indus they defeated the
Hindu King of
Sind Raja Rasil,
Umar ordered them to consolidate there position on the western bank of river
Indus and not to cross the river Indus.
[15]
During the reign of Caliph Uthman
Makran broke into revolt along with other Persian dominions. Uthman sent his commander 'Ubaidhullah ibn Ma’ mar Tamini' to re-conquer
Makran along with other adjoining areas of
Persia,
Islamic army under his command conquered it after series of skirmishing, however no pitch battle was fought. It was in year
650 A.D [16]. Ubaidullah ibn Ma’mar was made first governor of
Makran region later he was given governor ship of some other Persian region and was replaced by Umair ibn Usman ibn Saeed, and then Saeed ibn Qandir Qarshi was made Governor who remained governor until Caliph Uthman was murdered.
[17]
Conquest of Baluchistan (Pakistan)
What is now
Baluchistan province of
Pakistan, in
7th century A.D was divided into two main regions, its
south western parts were part of
Karman province of the Persian Empire and
north eastern region was part of the Persian province
Sistan. The
southern region was included in
Makran.
In early
644 A.D,
Caliph Umar sent Suhail ibn Adi from
Busra to conquer the
Karman region of
Iran; he was made governor of
Karman. From
Karman he entered the
western
Baluchistan and conquered the region near to
Persian frontiers.
[18] South Western
Baluchistan was conquered during the campaign in
sistan the same year.
During Caliph Uthman’s reign in
652 A.D,
Baluchistan was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in
Karman, under the command of Majasha ibn Masood, it was first time when western
Baluchistan came directly under the Laws of
Caliphate and gave tribute on agriculture.
[19]In those days western
Baluchistan was included in the dominion of
Karman. In
654 A.D Abdulrehman ibn Samrah was made governor of
Sistan, an
Islamic army was sent under him to crush the revolt in Zarang, which is now in
southern
Afghanistan. Conquering Zarang a column moved north ward to conquer areas up to
Kabul and
Ghazni in
Hindu Kush Mountains, while an other column moved to wards
North western Baluchistan and conquered area up to the ancient city of ''Dawar'' and ''Qandabil'' (
Bolan),
[20] by
654 A.D the whole of what is now
Baluchistan province of
Pakistan was under the rule of
Rashidun Caliphate except for the well defended mountain town of ''QaiQan'' (now
Kalat), which was conquered during Caliph
Ali’s reign.
[21] Abdulrehman ibn Samrah made Zaranj his provincial capital and remained governor of these conquered areas from
654 to
656 A.D, until Uthman was murdered.
Campaign in Sindh (pakistan)
The
province of
Sistan was the largest province of the
Persian Empire, its frontiers extending from
Sind in
east, to
Balkh (Afghanistan) in
north east.
[22] The
Islamic conquest of some parts of
Sind was extension of the campaign to conquer the Persian Empire in
643 A.D by sending seven armies from seven different routs to different parts of empire.
Islamic forces first entered
Sind during the reign of Caliph Umar, in
644 A.D. It was not a whole scale invasion of
Sind but was merely as extension of the conquests of the largest province of Persia
Sistan and
Makran region. In
644 A.D, the columns of Hakam ibn Amr, Shahab ibn Makharaq and Abdullah ibn Utban concentrated near the west bank of
river Indus and defeated the
Hindu king of
Sind Raja Rasil, his armies retreated and crossed the river
Indus.
In response of
Caliph Umar’s question about the
Makran region, the Messenger from Makran who bring the news of the victory told him:
Thereupon
Caliph Umar, after listening to the unfavorable situations for sending as army instructed Hakim bin Amr al Taghlabi that for the time being
Makran should be the easternmost frontier of the
Islamic empire, and that no further attempt should be made to extend the conquests. Thereupon on of the commander of
Islamic army in
Makran said the following verses:
Referring to the
Hindu Temple in interior
Sind where
prostitutes use to give a part of there earning as
charity.
After the death of
Caliph Umar the areas like other regions of the Persian Empire broke into revolt and Caliph Uthman sent forces to re-conquer them. Uthman also sent his agent Haheem ibn Jabla Abdi to investigate the matters of
Hind, on his return he told Uthman about the cities, listening to the miserable conditions of the region he avoided campaigning in interior
Sind and like Caliph
Umar he ordered his armies not to cross
Indus river.
[23]
Agitation Against Uthman
Unlike his predecessor
Umar, who maintained discipline with a stern hand, Uthman was lenient and kind hearted man; he focused more on the prosperity of his people. Under Uthman, the people became economically more prosperous and on the
political plane they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channelize political activity, and in the absence of such institutions, the
pre-
Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries which had been suppressed under
Islam erupted once again. In view of the democratic and
liberal policies adopted by Uthman the liberties allowed to the people soon degenerated into license, and such license became a headache for the State which culminated in the assassination of Uthman
[24]. Uthman fell a victim to the tyrannies of his people not because his rule was tyrannical or unjust, but because in advance of his time, he aspired to be kind and liberal in an age suited for an autocratic rule alone. More over the foreign powers became nervous at the success of the
Muslim under the leadership of Uthman, and now their only hope lay in aiding and patronizing subversive movements within the territories of
Islam. Under such circumstances, leader like
Abdullah ibn Saba, felt it to be a nice chance to accomplish there aims of rebellion activities to Islam, aimed at the subversion of
Islam by creating doubts among the
Muslims with regard to certain matters of their belief and thus disunit them, though the figure
Abdullah ibn Saba is believed by Shia Muslims to be an imaginary figure made by Sunni Historians to give an excuse. It is believed that the movement had its links with foreign countries. In lack of any perticular political department to deal with the growing political degree in state, the political leaders or sedition in various towns launched a campaign of vilification against Uthman, initially they started with argues over Uthman's kinsmen who were governors of
Egypt,
Busra and
Kufa, they were supported by the campanions belonged to the camp of
Ali, most prominent were
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and
Ammar ibn Yasir, who supported the right of
Ali to become caliph as his close relation to
Muhammad, thus the movement had sympathies of the followers of
Ali. The campaign was also supported by some campanions who had personal grievance with Uthman, like
Amr ibn al-Aas, who was dispossed from the governor ship of
Egypt by Uthman, and Uthman's adopted son
Muhammad ibn Abu Hudaifah, to whom Uthman denied to appoint as governor of any province.
The actual reasion of the seditionist movement is disputed among the
Shia and
Sunni Muslims.
[25]. Many unknown and anonymous letters were written to the leading campanions of
Muhammad, complaining against the tyrant rule of the governors of Uthman, more over letters were sent to the leader of public opinion of different provinces under lining the tyrant rule and mis-handling of power by the relatives of Uthman. This created an unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter to know the authenticity of the rumors
[26].
The movement however exploited differences between the
Hashimite and
Umayyad clans of
Quraish. Uthman belonged to
Umayyad clan, where as
Ali belonged to
Hashimite clan.
Sunni Muslims consider these claims over the governors of Uthman who remarkably achieved many success during there reign as governor, to be incorrect and nothing more than false claim and a tactic used by seditionists to overthrow the realm of Caliph Uthman by making him lose the control over the main provinces of
Egypt,
Syria,
Kufa and
Busra, where as a matter of loyality Uthman had appointed his own kinsmen as governors. On the other hand Shia suggest that these claims were correct and Uthman's kinsmen though achieved greater success as governors but failed to lead the people according to the principles of Islam, giving references to various early narrations present in primary sources of Islamic history. Sunni reject these narrations, on the basis that there authenticity is disputed.
Uthman's emissaries to the provinces
The situation was becoming tense and it was required to investigate the very roots of the anti-government propaganda and its aims. Some time in around
654 A.D, Uthman called all the governors of his 12 provinces to
Madinah to discuss the problem. In this Council of
Governors, Uthman directed the Governors that they should adopt all the expedients they had suggested according to local circumstances. Later in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministry), Uthman was suggested that reliable
agents should be deputed to various provinces to investigate the matter and report about the very source of such
rumors. Uthman accordingly sent his agents to the main provinces,
Muhammad ibn Maslamah was sent to
Kufa;
Usama ibn Zaid was sent to
Basra;
Ammar ibn Yasir was sent to
Egypt, while
Abdullah ibn Umar was sent to
Syria. The
emissaries who had been deputed to
Kufa,
Basra, and
Syria submitted their reports to Uthman, that all was well in
Kufa,
Basra and
Syria. The people were satisfied with the administration, and they had no legitimate grievance against the administration. Some individuals here and there had some personal grievances of minor character with which the people at large were not concerned,
Ammar ibn Yasir the
emissary to
Egypt, however, did not return to
Madinah. The
rebels were carried on propaganda in favor of the
caliphate of
Ali.
Ammar ibn Yasir had his affiliations with
Ali; he betrayed Uthman and instead joined the opposition in
Egypt.
Abdullah bin Sa'ad the Governor of
Egypt reported about the activities of the
seditionist in
Egypt. He wanted to take action against
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr(''foster son of
Ali''),
Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa(''adopted son of Uthman'') and
Ammar ibn Yasir[12].. Uthman did not want
Abdullah bin Sa'ad to be harsh against these persons for whom he had great regard. After the failure of emissary to
Egypt, Uthman was watching further develop meets in
Egypt.
Uthman's further measures
In
655 A.D, Uthman directed the people who had any grievance against the administration to assemble at
Makkah on the occasion of the
Hajj. He assured them that all their legitimate grievances would be redressed. He directed the
Governors and the "Amils" through out the empire to come to
Makkah on the occasion of the
Hajj. In response to the call of Uthman,
Seditionists came in large delegations from various cities to present there argues before the gathering
[24].
On the occasion of
Hajj 655 A.D, Uthman addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism over him and his administration and then said:
The seditionist realized that the people are in the view of the defense offered by Uthman were not in the mood to listen to them.
[29]. That was a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said according to
Sunni Muslims accounts that, Before returning back to
Syria,
Syrian
governor Muawiyah, Uthman’s cousin, suggested Uthman to come with him to
Syria as the atmosphere there was peaceful, Uthman rejected his offer saying that he don’t want to leave the city of
Muhammad (referring to
Madinah),
Muawiyah gave his second suggestion that Uthman should allow him to sent a strong force from
Syria to
Madinah to guard the
Caliph against any possible attempt by rebels to harm Uthman, Uthman rejected it too saying that the
Syrian
forces in
Madinah would be an incitement to a
civil war, and he could not be a part to such a move
[12].
Agitation in Madinah
After the
pilgrimage of
655 C.E. things remained quiet for some time. With the dawn of the year
656 A.D Madinah the
capital city of Uthman it self became a hot bed of intrigue and unrest.
Ammar ibn Yasir and
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr returned to
Madinah from
Egypt and led a campaign against the
Caliphate of Uthman, in
Madinah they were joined by
Amr ibn al-Aas.
When the crisis deepened in
Madinah, Uthman addressed the congregation in the
Masjid-e-Nabawi and gave explanation of all the claims over him. General public was again satisfied with Uthman. He had hoped that after his speech in which he had explained his position, and offered full defense for his actions, the false propaganda against him would cease. The agitation against Uthman was not being led on the basis of any principles; it was prompted by ulterior motives to overthrow his
Government[24].
Armed revolt against Uthman
As the politics of
Egypt figured most in the propaganda against the caliphate, Uthman summoned
Abdullah ibn Sa'ad the
Governor of
Egypt to
Madinah to consult him as to the course of action to be adopted. Abdullah b Sa'ad came to Madina leaving the charge of the affairs in
Egypt to his deputy. In the absence of Abdullah b Saad,
Muhammad bin Abu Hudhaifa staged a
coup d'etat and captured power in
Egypt. On hearing of the revolt in
Egypt, Abdullah hastened back to
Egypt. Uthman was not in the position to give him any military assistance. Abdullah b Sa'ad accordingly failed to recapture power in
Egypt[32]
In mid of
656 A.D Uthman’s
governor of
Kufa Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari failed to control the situation. In
Basra the
Governor Abdullah ibn Aamir left for
Hajj, and in his absence the affairs of the
province fell into a state of confusion.
Egypt was already the hot bed of seditionist, thus the three main
provinces of
Egypt,
Kufa, and
Basra came to be cut off from the
caliphate of Uthman, and became the center of revolt.
Rioters in Madinah
From
Egypt contingent of about 1,000 persons was sent to
Madinah. Their instructions were to overthrow the government of Uthman, and to murder him. Similar contingents marched from
Kufa and
Basra to
Madina[33]. They sent their representatives to Madina to contact the leaders of public opinion, The representatives of the contingent from
Egypt waited on
Ali, and offered him the
caliphate in succession to Uthman.
Ali turned down their offer. The representatives of the contingent from
Kufa waited on
Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, while the representatives of the contingent from
Basra waited on
Talha, and offered them their allegiance as the next Caliph. These offers were turned down. This move on the part of the rebels neutralized the bulk of public opinion in
Madinah. Madina could no longer offer a united front; it became a divided house. Uthman could enjoy the active support of the
Umayyads, and a few other persons in
Madinah[25]. The rest of the people of
Madinah chose to be neutral and help neither side.
Siege of Uthman
Main articles: Siege of Uthman
The situation in
Madinah was a big gain for the
rebels. When they felt satisfied that the people of
Madinah would not offer them any resistance, they entered the city of
Madinah and laid siege to the house of Uthman. The rebels declared that no harm from them would come to any person who did not choose to resist them. Uthman strongly instructed his supporters to refrain from violence, his 400
slaves at his palace appealed to grant them permission to fight against the rebels along with thousand other citizens of
Madinah, Uthman freed all 400
slaves and ordered them to stay away from
civil war between
Muslims.
When the rebels besieged the house of Uthman, the siege was not severe at the early stage
[35]. The rebels merely hovered around the house of Uthman, and did not place any restrictions on the movements of Uthman. Uthman went to the
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi as usual, and led the prayers. The rebels offered prayers under the leadership of Uthman. Uthman addressed the people in the
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, Uthman was criticized by
seditionist, the supporters of Uthman took up cudgels on behalf of Uthman. Hot words were exchanged between the parties. Tempers flared up on both the sides, and that led to the pelting of stones at one another. One of the stones hit Uthman, and he fell unconscious. Uthman was carried to his house in a state of unconsciousness.
The proceedings in the
mosque showed to most of the people of
Madinah preferred to be neutral and watch developments. When the rebels felt that the people of
Madinah were not likely to offer active support to Uthman, they changed their strategy, and tightened the siege of the house of Uthman. Uthman was denied the freedom to move about. He was not allowed to go to the mosque.
As days passed on the rebels felt bold, and intensified their pressure against Uthman
[35]. They forbade the entry of any food or provisions and later water as well, into the house of Uthman.
Umm Habiba, a widow of
Muhammad, came to see Uthman and brought some water and provisions for Uthman. She was not allowed to enter the house of Uthman. An other widow of Muhammad, and daughter of late
Caliph Abu Bakr,
Ayesha made a similar attempt, and she was also prevailed upon by the rebels to go back
[37].
With the departure of the pilgrims from
Madinah to
Makkah, the hands of the rebels were further strengthened, and as a consequence the crisis deepened further. The rebels apprehended that after the
Hajj, thc Muslims gathered at Makkah from all parts of the
Muslim world might march to
Madinah to the relief of the
Caliph. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the
pilgrimage was over. During the siege Uthman was asked by his supporters who outnumbered the
rebels to let them fight against the rebels and route them, Uthman prevented them from any violence to avoid the blood shed of
Muslim by a
Muslim. The gates of the palace of Uthman were shut and Guarded by renowned warrior
Abdullah ibn Zubayr [38]. Son of
Ali bin Abu Talib,
Hassan ibn Ali and
Hussain ibn Ali were also among those who guarded the gates of palace of
Caliph Uthman. There was a skirmish between the rebels and supporters of Uthman at the gate, some rebels were killed in it and rebels were finally pushed back, among the supporters of Uthman,
Hasan ibn Ali,
Marwan ibn al-Hakam and some other persons were wounded.
When Uthman came to know of this action he said:
Death
Finding the gate of palace of
Caliph strongly guarded by his supporters, rebels climbed the back wall of the palace and entered inside, the guards on the gate were unaware of what’s going on inside. It is said that Uthman was reading
Quran when rebels entered his room and struck blows at the head of Uthman.
[39] Naila, wife of Uthman, threw herself on the body of Uthman to protect him.
Uthman was reading Quran when he was assasinated, it is believed that this
Quran, present at meuseum in
Toshkent, has the blood spots of Uthman
She was pushed aside, and further blows were struck on Uthman till he was dead. The slaves of Uthman fell on the persons whose blows had killed Uthman and killed him. There was some fighting between the rebels and the
slaves of Uthman. There were casualties on both the sides, and the rebels looted the house
[40].
After the gruesome murder of Uthman, the rioters wanted to mutilate the dead body of Uthman, and were keen that the dead body be denied burial. When some of the rioters came forward to mutilate the dead body of Uthman, his two
widows, Nailah and Ramlah bint Sheibah covered the dead body, and raised loud cries which deterred the rioters from pursuing their nefarious design.
When the women raised loud lamentations over the dead body of Uthman, the rebels left the house, the supporters of Uthman at gate listened to it and entered the house but it was too late
[41].
Thereafter the rioters maintained a presence round the house in order to prevent the dead body from being carried to the graveyard
The funeral
After the dead body of Uthman had been in the house for three days, Naila, Uthman's wife, approached some of Uthman's supporters to help in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded to her call. These included
Marwan ibn al-Hakam,
Zaid ibn Thabit,'Huwatib bin Alfarah, Jabir bin Muta'am, Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram
[42]. The dead body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade no coffin could be procured. The dead body was not washed, as
Islam states that martyrs' bodies are not washed before burial, so Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination
[43]. According to one account, permission was obtained from
Ali to bury the dead body. According to another account, no permission was obtained, and the dead body was carried to the graveyard in secret. Yet a third account states that when the rioters came to know that the dead body was being carried to the graveyard they gathered to stone the funeral, but
Ali forbade them to resort to any such act, and they withdrew. Some people say that
Ali attended the funeral, but there is however overwhelming evidence to the effect that Ali did not
[44]. Naila followed the funeral with a lamp, but in order to maintain secrecy the lamp had to be extinguished. Naila was accompanied by some women including Ayesha, Uthman's daughter.
The burial
The dead body was carried to
Jannat al-Baqi, the graveyard of Muslims.
It appears that some people gathered there, and they resisted the burial of Uthman in the graveyard of the Muslims. The supporters of Uthman insisted that the dead body would be buried in the graveyard of the Muslims
[45]. Those who were opposed to such burial grew in strength, and fearing lest such opposition might take a more ominous turn, the dead body of Uthman was taken to the neighboring graveyard of the
Jews ''Hush Kaukab'', and buried there in a hurry. The funeral prayers were led by Jabir bin Muta'am, and the dead body was lowered in the grave without much of ceremony. After burial, Naila the widow of Uthman and Ayesha the daughter of Uthman wanted to speak, but they were advised to remain quiet as danger was apprehended from the rioters
[46].
Family of Uthman
Main articles: Family tree of Uthman
Uthman belonged to the Umayyad branch of the Quraish tribe, and was
Muhammad's nephew. He was the son of
Affan ibn Abu al-As and
Urwa bint Kariz. Urwa bore only two children from Affan: Uthman and his sister Amna. After the death of Affan, Urwa married Uqba bin Maheet, to whom she bore three sons and a daughter:
★ Walid bin Uqba
★ Khalid bin Uqba
★ Amr bin Uqba
★ Umm Kulthum bint Uqba
Before the
Islam, Uthman had two wives namely,
★ Umm'Amr bint Jandab
★ Fatimah bint Al Walid
He had following childerns from them,
'From Umm'Amr bint Jandab'
★ Amr
★ Khalid
★ Aban
★ Umar
★ Maryam
'From Fatimah bint al-Walid'
★ Walid
★ Said
★ Umm Said.
Amr, was the eldest son of Uthman, and during the pre-Islamic period, Uthman was known by the surname of ''Abu'Amr''.
After his conversion to He was married to
★
Ruqayyah bint Muhammad
Muhammad's daughter. Ruqayyah and Uthman had a son,
Abd-Allah ibn Uthman, but he died early, because of him after
Islam he was called by the surname ''Abu'Abdullah.''When she died, Uthman was married to her sister,
★
Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, second daughter of
Muhammad. Umm Kulthum bore no child.
After the death of
Mohammad's daughters, Uthman married to following women and had following children from them.
'From Fakhta bint Ghazwan'
★ Abdullah bin Uthman al-asghar, he died in early age.
'From Umm Al-Nabeen bint Einiyah'
★ Abdulmalik bin Uthman, he too died in early age.
'From Ramla biny Sheibah'
★ Ayesha bint Uthman
★ Umm Aban bint Uthman
★ Umm Amr bint Uthman
'From Nailah bint Fraizah'
★ Maryum
Legacy
It is said that Uthman was one of the most handsome and charming man of his time.
[47]
Uthman was the last caliph who could enjoy unity in the Muslim world.
Uthman was well known for his generosity. He financed the project for the construction of the
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in
Madinah. He purchased the well ''Beer Rauma'' in
Madinah and dedicated it to the free use of the Muslims, at the time of
Muhammad. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph.
Uthman led a simple life even after becoming the
Caliph of the
Islamic empire, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life.
The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal the public
treasury but Uthman never took any
salary for his service as a
Caliph to
Islam, he was a rich man he simply didn't need it
[48]. Uthman also developed a custom to free
slaves every
Friday, look after
widows and
orphans, and give unlimited
charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader. He was a devoted
Muslim, As a way of taking care of
Muhammad’s wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman also built a
Place for himself in
Madinah, known as 'Al-Zawar' having doors of precious wood, although he made it by his own money, but
Shia Muslims consider it his first step to wards ruling like a
King.
[1]. Uthman's sister Amna bint Affan was married to
Abd-al-Rahman ibn Awf, one of the closest campanion of
Muhammad.
Sunni view of Uthman
According to the Sunni account of Uthman, he was married to two of Muhammads daughters at separate times, earning him the name ''Zun-Nurayn (Dhun Nurayn)'' or the "Possessor of Two Lights.". In this he was supposed to outrank
Ali ibn Abu Talib, who had married only one of Muhammad's daughters.
Sunni Muslims also consider Uthman as one of
the ten Sahaba (companions) for whom Muhammad had testified that they were destined for Paradise, and one of the six with whom Muhammad was pleased when he died. He was a wealthy and very noble man. When he became khalifa, he used the same method Umar did.
Shia view of Uthman
According to the Shia view, Uthman is looked at negatively. The Shia do not believe that he was one of the Sahaba's destined to Paradise. Shia's dispute that Uthman's "Possessor of Two Lights" title was to annoy Ali ibn Abu Talib. They also believe that he did not outrank Ali because Ali was married to Muhammad's daughter
Fatima Zahra who is considered to be the greatest woman that ever lived. Fatima Zahra was from Muhammad's first marriage to
Khadijah Al-Kubra.
Uthman was chosen by a council of six men appointed by the previous Caliph,Umar, whose members (except for Zubair and Ali) were related to Uthman, to succeed Umar as the next Caliph, much to Ali's chargin and protest (quotation needed). He was part of the Bani Ummayah family of which Abu Sufiyan,a vilified figure amongst Muslims, was head of. His appointment of family relatives, such as Muawiya and Marwan, to high posts around the Muslim empire and their abuse of wealth and power irked the Ummah. Ali was from
Banu Hashim the same family as Muhammad.
To Shia Muslims Uthman's succession marked the beginning of the Ummayad dynasty, if not the first Ummayad ruler, which they believed to be unjust. Also they believe his succession was the continuation of a leadership usurption that had started from Abu Bakr to Umar to finally Uthman.
Non-Muslims
Bernard Lewis
20th century non-Muslim scholar says of Uthman:
David Samuel Margoliouth
20th century non-Muslim scholar says of Uthman:
E. A. Belyaev the
20th century
non-Muslim scholar says of Uthman:
References
1. Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum
(The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
2. Uthman bin Affan, the Third Caliph of Islam by Ahmad, Abdul Basit.
(Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2000).
3. Hazrat Usman – by Rafi Ahmad Fidai, Publisher: Islamic Book Service Pages: 32
4. http://www.islam4theworld.com/Sahabah/talhah_bn_ubaydullah_R.htm
5. Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum
(The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
6. The Early Islamic Conquests, Fred McGraw Donner, Princeton 1981
7. The Early Islamic Conquests, Fred McGraw Donner, Princeton 1981
8. A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims on Al-Islam.org [1] referencing Al-Fitna Al-Kubra (The Great Upheaval), published by Dar-ul-Ma'arif, Cairo, 1959, p. 47:)
9. The Early Islamic Conquests, Fred McGraw Donner, Princeton 1981
10. Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum
(The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
11. http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/coinsm1.htm
12. The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
13. ''See'':Tarikh al-Tabari
14. ''see '':Tarikh ibn Kathir
15. Tabri vol:4 pg:183
16. Tarikh al Tabri vol:3 pg: 360
17. Ibn Asir vol: 3 page no: 38
18. Ibn Aseer vol: 3 page no: 17
19. Fatu al Buldan page no:384
20. Tabqat ibn Saad vol: 8 pg: 471
21. Fatuh al buldan pg:386
22. Tabri vol: 4 page no: 180-181
23. Tarikh al Khulfa vol: 1 pg:197
24. Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani, by Mohammad Alias Aadil. Publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore.
25. Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam, Francesco Gabrieli, London 1968
26. A Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 Ce By Habibur U. Rahman. ISBN 0816190674
27. The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
28. Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani, by Mohammad Alias Aadil. Publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore.
29. by Ahmad, Abdul Basit.(Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2000).
30. The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
31. Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani, by Mohammad Alias Aadil. Publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore.
32. Abu Nu`aym, Hilya al-Awliya’ 1:92-100 #3; al-Dhahabi, Siyar A`lam al-Nubala’ 1/2: 566-614 #4.
33. http://sunnah.org/publication/khulafa_rashideen/caliph3.htm
34. Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam, Francesco Gabrieli, London 1968
35. The Murder of the Caliph `Uthman, M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1972
36. The Murder of the Caliph `Uthman, M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1972
37. http://www.geocities.com/islamimiracles3/Hazrat_Usman_bin_Affaan.htms
38. The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman, M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1972
39. The Many Faces of Faith: A Guide to World Religions and Christian Traditions By Richard R. Losch
40. The Martydom of Uthman ibn Affan, by Shaykh Zahir. ISBN : 58
41. http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/islam/bldef_uthmanibnaffan.htm
42. http://www.islamicgoodsdirect.co.uk/product_info.php/products_id/1427
43. http://writerinislam.blogspot.com/2005/11/uthman-ibn-affan-man-with-two-lights.html
44. Makers of Arab History By Philip Khuri Hitti. Publishers St. Martin's Press 1968.Original from the University of Michigan.Digitized 21 Nov 2006
45. Textual Sources for the Study of Islam By Knappert, Jan, Andrew Rippin
46. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer
47. ibn Hasham, vol:1 page 150
48. by Ahmad, Abdul Basit.
(Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2000).
49. Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum
(The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
Also:
★ Levi Della Vida, G. and R.G. Khoury. "‘UthmÄn b. ‘AffÄn." ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''. Eds. P.J. Bearman et al. 12 Vols. Brill, 2004.
30 October 2005 .
★ http://www.anwary-islam.com/companion/usman_bin_affan.htm
External links
Views of various Islamic historians on Uthman:
★
Uthman in History
Shi'a view of Uthman:
★
Uthman's election
★
The assassination of `Uthman Ibn `Affan
★
Uthman and Abdullah bin Massood
See also
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