Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the 11th century chronicle of
John Skylitzes.
The 'Varangians' or 'Varyags' (
Russian,
Ukrainian : Варяги, Varyagi) sometimes referred to as ''Variagians'' were
Scandinavians who migrated eastwards and southwards through what is now Russia and Ukraine mainly in the 9th and 10th centuries. Engaging in
trade,
piracy and
mercenary activities, they roamed the river systems and portages of
Gardariki, reaching the
Caspian Sea and
Constantinople.
[1]
Contemporary English publications also use the name "
Viking" for early Varangians in some contexts.
[2][3]
The term Varangian remained in usage in the Byzantine Empire until the 13th century, largely disconnected from its Scandinavian roots by then.
Etymology
The term Varangians made its first appearance not in
Scandinavia or
Russia but in
Byzantium where it was introduced to designate a function. In Russia it was extended to apply to Scandinavian warriors journeying to and from
Constantinople. In the Byzantine sources Varangians are first mentioned in 1034 as in garrison in the
Thracian theme. The Arabic geographer
Al Biruni mentioned the
Baltic sea as the Varangian Sea and specified the Varangians as a people dwelling on its coasts. The first datable use of the word in
Norse literature ''Væringjar'' appears by
Einarr Skúlason in 1153. According to Icelandic
Njalssaga from the 13th century the institution of Varangian guard was established by year 1000. In the Russian
Primary Chronicle the Varangian is used as a generic term for the Germanic nations on the coasts of the Baltic sea that likewise lived in the west as far as the land of the English and the French
[4]
The word ''Væringjar'' itself is regarded in Scandinavia as of
Old Norse origin, cognate with
Old English ''Værgenga'' (One who seeks protection, a stranger), derived from ''varar'', (solem vow, oath) and ''ganga''.
The Varangian Rus
Having settled
Aldeigja (Ladoga) in the 750s, Scandinavian colonists were probably an element in the early ethnogenesis of the
Rus' people, and likely played a role in the formation of the
Rus' Khaganate. The Varangians ('Varyags', in
Old East Slavic) are first mentioned by the
Primary Chronicle as having exacted tribute from the
Slavic and
Finnic tribes in
859. It was the time of rapid expansion of the Vikings in Northern Europe; England began to pay
Danegeld in
859, and the
Curonians of
Grobin faced an invasion by the Swedes at about the same date.
In
862, the Finnic and Slavic tribes rebelled against the Varangian Rus, driving them overseas back to Scandinavia, but soon started to conflict with each other. The disorder prompted the tribes to invite back the Varangian Rus "to come and rule them" and bring peace to the region. Led by
Rurik and his brothers
Truvor and Sineus, the invited Varangians (called
Rus) settled around the town of
Holmgard (Novgorod).
An approximative map of the non-Varangian cultures in European Russia, in the
9th century
In the 9th century, the Rus' operated the
Volga trade route, which connected Northern Russia (
Gardariki) with the Middle East (
Serkland). As the Volga route declined by the end of the century, the
Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks rapidly overtook it in popularity. Apart from Ladoga and Novgorod,
Gnezdovo and
Gotland were major centres for Varangian trade.
[5]
Western historians tend to agree with the Primary Chronicle that these Scandinavians founded
Kievan Rus' in the 880s and gave their name to the land. Many Slavic scholars are opposed to this theory of Germanic influence on the
Rus' (people) and have suggested alternative scenarios for this part of Eastern European history.
In contrast to the intense Scandinavian influence in
Normandy and the
British Isles, Varangian culture did not survive to a great extent in the East. Instead, the Varangian ruling classes of the two powerful city-states of
Novgorod and
Kiev were thoroughly Slavicized by the end of the 10th century.
Old Norse was spoken in one district of Novgorod, however, until the
13th century.
Rus and the Byzantine Empire
The earliest
Byzantine record of the
Rus's is written prior to 842, preserved in the Greek ''Life of St. George of Amastris'', speaking of a raid that had extended
into Paphlagonia .
In 839, emperor
Theophilus negotiated with the foreigners,
whom he called ''Rhos'', to provide a few mercenaries for his army.
It was in 860, from Kiev, that the Rus under
Askold and Dir launched their
first attack on Constantinople. The result of this initial attack is disputed, but the Varangians continued their efforts as they regularly sailed on their
monoxylae down the Dnieper into the
Black Sea. The Rus'
raids into the Caspian Sea were recorded by Arab authors in the 870s and in 910, 912, 913, 943, and later. Although the Rus had predominantly peaceful trading relations with the Byzantines, the rulers of Kiev launched the relatively successful
naval expedition of 907 and the
abortive campaign of 941 against Constantinople, as well as
Sviatoslav I's large-scale invasion of the Balkans in 968-971.
These raids were successful in the sense of forcing the Byzantines to re-arrange
their trading arrangements; militarily, the Varangians were usually defeated by the superior Byzantine forces, especially in the sea and due to the Byzantines' use of
Greek fire. Many atrocities were reported by (not wholly impartial) Greek historians during such raids: the Rus' were said to have crucified their victims and to have driven nails into their heads .
As early as 911, the Varangians are also mentioned as fighting ''for'' the Byzantines. About 700 Varangians served along with Dalmatians as marines in Byzantine naval expeditions against Crete in 902 and a force of 629 returned to Crete under
Constantine Porphyrogenitus (700 and 629 troops, respectively) in 949. A unit of 415 Varangians was involved in the Italian expedition of 936. It is also recorded that there were Varangian contingents among the forces that fought the Arabs in Syria in 955. During this period, the Varangian mercenaries were known as the ''Great Companions'' (Gr. Μεγάλη Εταιρεία).
With the decline of the Byzantine empire, the emperors increased their reliance on the Varangian mercenaries. In 988
Basil II requested military assistance from
Vladimir of Kiev to help defend his throne. In compliance with the treaty made by his father after the
Siege of Dorostolon (971), Vladimir sent 6,000 men to Basil. In exchange, Vladimir was given Basil's sister,
Anna, in marriage. Vladimir also agreed to convert to Christianity and to
bring his people into the Christian faith.
In 989 the Varangian guard, led by Basil II himself, landed at Chrysopolis to defeat the rebel general
Bardas Phocas. On the field of battle, Phocas died of a stroke in full view of his opponent; upon the death of their leader, Phocas' troops turned and fled. The brutality of the Varangians was noted when they pursued the fleeing army and "cheerfully hacked them to pieces."
Varangian Guard
It was because of Basil's distrust of the native Byzantine guardsmen, whose loyalties often shifted with fatal consequences, as well as the proven loyalty of the Varangians that led Basil to employ them as his personal bodyguards. This new force became known as the ''Varangian Guard'' (Gr. Tagma ton Varangion, ''Τάγμα των Βαραγγίων'') Over the years, new recruits from as far abroad as Sweden, Denmark, and Norway gave a predominantly Scandinavian cast to the organization until the late 11th century.
Runic graffiti inscribed in a column in
Constantinople (now Istanbul) by members of the Varangian Guard.
Composed primarily of Scandinavians for the first 100 years, the guard began to see increased inclusion of Anglo-Saxons after the successful invasion of England by the Normans. In 1088 a large number of Anglo-Saxons and Danes emigrated to the Byzantine Empire by way of the Mediterranean..
One source has more than 5,000 of them arriving in 235 ships. Those who did not enter imperial service settled on the Black Sea coast, but those who did became so vital to the Varangians that the Guard was commonly called the ''Englinbarrangoi'' (Anglo-Varangians) from that point. In this capacity they fought in Sicily against the Normans under
Robert Guiscard, who unsuccessfully sought to invade the lower Balkans as well.
The duties and purpose of the Varangian Guard were similar — if not identical — to the services provided by the Kievan ''
druzhina'', the Norwegian ''
hird'', and the Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon ''
housecarls''. The Varangians served as the personal
bodyguard[6] of the emperor, swearing an oath of loyalty to him; they had ceremonial duties as retainers and acclaimers and performed some police duties, especially in cases of treason and conspiracy.
Unlike the native Byzantine guards so mistrusted by Basil II, the Varangian guards' loyalties lay with the position of Emperor, not the man that sat on the throne. This was made clear in 969 when the guards failed to avenge the death by assassination of Emperor Nicephorus II. A servant had managed to call for the guards while the Emperor was being attacked, but when they arrived he was dead. They immediately knelt before John Tzimisces, Nicephorus' murderer and hailed him as Emperor. "Alive they would have defended him to the last breath: dead there was no point in avenging him. They had a new master now."
While the Varangians are represented in Walter Scott's novel "Count Robert of Paris" as being the fiercest and most loyal element of the Byzantine forces, this is probably exaggerated. However, the exaggeration was begun by Byzantine writers themselves, who applied a "
noble savage" identity to the Varangians. Many Byzantine writers referred to them as "axe-bearing warriors," or ''pelekyphoroi barbaroi'', rather than Varangians.
While many writers praised their loyalty to the emperors (and ascribed their loyalty to their race), the frequent usurpations that disrupted Byzantine rule suggest that the Guard was either less loyal or less effective than the sources would lead us to believe.
One notable exception to the legendary Varangian loyalty to the throne occurred in 1071. After Emperor Romanus Diogenes was defeated by Sultan Alp Arslan, a palace coup was staged before he could return to Constantinople. His stepson, Caesar John Ducas, used the Varangian guard to depose the absent emperor, arrest Empress Eudoxia, and proclaim his brother,
Michael VII, as emperor. Thus, instead of defending their absent emperor, the Varangians were used by the usurpers.
Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the Skylitzis Chronicle
Like their distant brethren, the Varangians relied on a long axe as their main weapon, although they were often skilled swordsmen or archers as well. In some sources they are described as mounted. The guard was stationed primarily around Constantinople, and may have been barracked in the Bucoleon palace complex. The guard also accompanied armies into the field, and Byzantine chroniclers (as well as several notable Western European and Arab chroniclers) often note their battlefield prowess, especially in comparison to the local barbarian peoples. They were vital to the Byzantine victory under the emperor
John II Komnenos at the
Battle of Beroia in
1122. The Varangians hacked their way through the enemy's circle of
Pecheneg wagons, collapsing the Pecheneg position and causing a general rout in their camp.
Furthermore, they were the only element of the army to successfully defend part of
Constantinople during the
Fourth Crusade. Of the role of the guard, then composed of the English and Danes, it is said that "the fighting was very violent and there was hand to hand fight with axes and swords, the assailants mounted the walls and prisoners were taken on both sides".
Although the Guard was apparently disbanded after the city's capture in
1204, there are some indications that it was revived either by the
Empire of Nicaea or by the
Palaeologid emperors themselves, though it is not likely that they lasted long after
Michael VIII.
Other than their fierce loyalty, the most recognizable attributes of the Varangian guard during the 11th century were their large axes and their penchant for drinking. There are countless stories of the Varangian guard either drinking in excess or being drunk. In 1103 during a visit to Constantinople, King
Eric the Good of Denmark "exhorted members of the guard to lead a more sober life and not give themselves up to drunkenness." It is not surprising, therefore, to find a 12th century description of them as "the Emperor's wine-bags."
Varangian Guard on runestones
The great losses that the Varangian Guard suffered is probably what is reflected by the largest group of runestones that talk of foreign voyages in Sweden, i.e. the
Greece Runestones[7] of which many were raised by former members of the Varangian Guard, or in their memory. A smaller group consists of the four
Italy Runestones which are probably raised in memory of members of the Varangian Guard who died in southern Italy.
The oldest of the Greece runestones are six stones in the
style RAK, a style which is dated to the period before 1015 AD.
[8] The group consists of
Skepptuna runestone U 358,
Västra Ledinge runestone U 518,
Nälberga runestone Sö 170,
Eriksstad runestone Sm 46 and two runestones that were raised in memory of military commanders in Greece:
Rycksta runestone Sö 163 and
Grinda runestone Sö 165.
[9]
One of the more notable of the later runestones in the
style Pr4 is
Ed runestone U 112, a large boulder at the western shore of the lake of Ed. It tells that Ragnvaldr, the captain of the Varangian Guard, had returned home where he had the inscriptions made in memory of his dead mother.
The youngest runestones, in the
style Pr5, such as
Ed runestone U 104 (presently in the
Ashmolean Museum in
Oxford), are dated to the period 1080-1130, after which runestones became unfashionable.
The Varangians did not return home without a lasting imprint of Byzantine culture to which testifies a
Byzantine cross carved on the early
11th century Risbyle runestone U 161, and which today is the
coat-of-arms of
Täby.
[10] Somewhat ironically, however, it was made by the
Viking Ulfr of Báristaðir who commemorated on the
Orkesta runestone U 344 that he had taken three
danegelds in
England.
Varangian Guard in Norse sagas
Map showing area of Scandinavian settlements during the 9th to 10th centuries. Also the trade and raid routes, often inseparable, are marked.
According to the
sagas, the
West Norse entered the service of the Guard considerably later than the
East Norse. The
Laxdœla saga, informs that the Icelander
Bolli Bollason, born c. 1006, was the first known Icelander or Norwegian in the Varangian Guard.
[11] Travelling to Constantinople via Denmark, he spent many years in the Varangian Guard; "and was thought to be the most valiant in all deeds that try a man, and always went next to those in the forefront."
[12] The saga also records the finery his followers received from the Emperor, and the influence he held after his return to Iceland:
The Varangian Guard is mentioned also in ''
Njal's Saga'' in reference to Kolskegg - an Icelander said to have come first to
Holmgard (Novgorod) and then on to Miklagard (Constantinople), where he entered the Emperor's service. "The last that was heard of him was, that he had wedded a wife there, and was captain over the Varangians, and stayed there till his death day."
[13]
Perhaps the most famous member of the Varangian Guard was the future king
Harald Sigurdsson III of Norway, known as Harald Hardråde ("Hard-ruler"
[Philip Dixon, ''Barbarian Europe'', Salem House Publishing (October 1976), 978-0525701606]). Having fled his homeland, Harald went first to
Gardariki and then on to Constantinople, where he arrived in 1035. He participated in eighteen battles and during his service
fought against Arabs in Anatolia and Sicily under General
George Maniakes, as well as in southern Italy and Bulgaria.
During his time in the Varangian guard Harald earned the titles of ''manglavites'' and ''spatharocandidatos''. But his service ended with his imprisonment for misappropriation of imperial plunder taken during his command. He was released upon the dethronement of the Emperor
Michael V, and saga sources suggest he was the one sent to blind the Emperor when he and his uncle fled to the church of
Studion Monastery and clung to the altar.
Harald then sought to leave his post, but was denied this. He eventually escaped and returned home in
1043. The exiled English prince
Edgar Ætheling may also have served with the Guard around
1098.
See also
★ For the Scandinavians who travelled westward, see
Vikings
★
Rurik,
Rulers of Kievan Rus
★
Roslagen,
Svealand,
Svear
★
Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy
★
New Varangian Guard
Primary sources
★
Russian Primary Chronicle
★ ''The
Strategikon'' by
Kekaumenos
★ ''The
Alexiad'' by
Anna Komnena
★ The ''Historia ecclesiatica'' by Ordericus Vitalis
★ The ''Chronicon universale anonymi Laudunensis''
★ The ''
Jatvardar saga''
★ The ''
Heimskringla''
★ The ''
Laxdœla saga''
Sources
★ Sigfus Blondal. ''Varangians of Byzantium: An Aspect of Byzantine Military History''. Trans. by Benedikt S. Benedikz, Cambridge: 1978. ISBN 0-521-21745-8
★ H.R. Ellis Davidson. ''The Viking Road to Byzantium''. London: 1976. ISBN 0-04-940049-5
External links
★
English Refugees in the Byzantine Armed Forces: The Varangian Guard and Anglo-Saxon Ethnic Consciousness by Nicholas C.J. Pappas for
De Re Militari.org
Notes
1. Stephen Turnbull, ''The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453'', Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-759-X
2. Viking (Varangian) Oleg at Encyclopaedia Britannica
3. Viking (Varangian) Rurik at Encyclopaedia Britannica
4. The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text Translated by O. P
. Sherbowitz-Wetzor ISBN 0910956340
5. A massive majority (40,000) of all Viking-Age Arabian coins found in Scandinavia were found in Gotland. In Skåne, Öland and Uppland together, about 12,000 coins were found. Other Scandinavian areas have only scattered finds: 1,000 from Denmark and some 500 from Norway. Byzantine coins have been found almost exclusively in Gotland, some 400. See ''Arkeologi i Norden 2''. Författarna och Bokförlaget Natur & kultur. Stockholm 1999. See also Gardell, Carl Johan: ''Gotlands historia i fickformat'', 1987. ISBN 91-7810-885-3.
6. It is neither unusual nor particularly Byzantine that a foreign unit would gain such access and prestige. Augustus himself had a personal guard of Germans, the ''Collegium Custodum Corporis'' or ''Germani Corporis Custodes'', to protect himself from the native Praetorians. This guard was revived by Tiberius and continued until Nero.
7. Larsson, Mats G (2002). Götarnas Riken : Upptäcktsfärder Till Sveriges Enande. Bokförlaget Atlantis AB ISBN 9789174866414 p. 143-144.
8. ''Runriket Täby-Vallentuna – en handledning'', by Rune Edberg gives the start date 985, but the Rundata project includes also Iron Age and earlier Viking Age runestones in the style RAK.
9. The dating is provided by the Rundata project in a freely downloadable database.
10. The article ''5. Runriket - Risbyle'' on the site of Stockholm County Museum, retrieved July 7, 2007.
11. ''Sagas of the Icelanders'', Penguin Group
12. [1]
13. [3]
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