VIETNAM VETERANS AGAINST THE WAR

'Vietnam Veterans Against the War' (VVAW) is a tax-exempt non-profit organization and corporation, originally created to oppose the Vietnam War. VVAW describes itself as a national veterans' organization that campaigns for peace, justice, and the rights of all United States military veterans. It publishes a twice-yearly newsletter ''The Veteran'', previously published more frequently as ''1st Casualty'' (1971-1972) and then as ''Winter Soldier'' (1973-1975).
VVAW considers itself as "anti-war," although not in the pacifistic sense. Membership varied greatly, from 20,000 during the height of the war to fewer than a couple thousand in subsequent decades. While the member veterans were a small fraction of the millions that served between 1965-75, the VVAW is widely considered to be among the most influential anti-war organizations of that era.

History

VVAW was founded by six Vietnam war veterans, including Jan "Barry" Crumb, Mark Donnelly, and David Braum, in New York City in June, 1967 after they marched together in the April 15, 1967 ''Spring Mobilization to End the War'' anti-war demonstration with over 400,000 other protesters. After talking to members of the ''Veterans for Peace'' group at that march, Barry discovered there was no organization representing Vietnam veterans.^[1]
The VVAW's website summarizes it's history, in part indicating that:
VVAW organized rap groups for veterans in 1970, the predecessor to readjustment counseling at modern Vet Centers. They helped draft legislation for education and job programs, and assisted veterans with post-war health care through the VA hospital system, including assisting victims of Agent Orange and other chemical agents. The VVAW advocated amnesty for war resisters.
The fluctuating membership size of this organization has been a point of some confusion, with some sources claiming it peaked at over 20,000 and others claiming it never exceeded several thousand. Several historic events would serve to fuel the organization's rapid growth as well as its decline in membership. The organization remained small until late 1969 when it gained several hundred new members.^[2] With the Nixon administration's decision to invade Cambodia and the Kent State shootings in 1970, VVAW's visibility increased, as did their membership, from 1,500 to almost 5000. ^[3] Publicity from VVAW-sponsored events continued to spur membership growth past 8,500 by the first month of 1971, and thousands more flocked to the organization after Playboy Magazine donated a full-page VVAW ad in its February edition.^[4] An FBI informant within the organization notes in March, 1971 that membership had grown from 1,500 to over 12,000 in the past four months.^[5] The national televised coverage of VVAW's week-long April, 1971 protest in Washington, DC, and smaller protests in subsequent months continued to increase their notoriety. By 1971, the group had grown to 20,000 members.^[6] The organization itself claims a peak membership of over 30,000. By 1972, negotiations at the Paris peace talks were in full swing, signaling the beginning of the end of the war as well as the end of VVAW's primary mission. Membership in the organization diminished as the leadership scrambled to broaden its purpose. Membership requirements were relaxed, and political differences arose as new members fought with old about which direction the VVAW should take. The organization had dwindled to just several thousand members by 1973.^[7] With internal struggle still threatening to tear the group apart, 2,000 members demonstrated in Washington in July 1974, demanding universal amnesty for draft resisters and deserters, and universal discharge with benefits for all Vietnam veterans.^[8]

Notable VVAW sponsored events

Operation RAW

During the Labor Day weekend of September 4-7, 1970, Operation RAW ("Rapid American Withdrawal") took place. It was a three day protest march from Morristown, NJ, to Valley Forge State Park by over 200 veterans. They were joined by members of "Nurses for Peace" and other peace groups. Dressed in combat fatigues and carrying toy weapons, the march was designed to dramatize a Vietnam-type search and destroy mission to the Middle America they passed through. Upon entering each town along the march, sweeps were made, prisoners taken and interrogated, property seized and homes cleared with the assistance of previously planted "guerrilla theater" actors portraying civilians. The 86 mile long march culminated in a four hour rally at Valley Forge that over 1,500 people attended. The honorary commander during this event was retired Army Brigadier General Hugh B. Hester. Sponsors included Senators George McGovern and Edmund Muskie, Rep. John D. Conyers, Jr., Paul O'Dwyer, Mark Lane, and Donald Sutherland. Scheduled speakers were John Kerry, Joe Kennedy, Rev. James Bevel, Mark Lane, Jane Fonda, and Sutherland. Congressman Allard Lowenstein, Mike Lerner, and Army First Lt. Louis Font also spoke.^[9]

Winter Soldier Investigation

Main articles: Winter Soldier Investigation

In January 1971, VVAW sponsored ''The Winter Soldier Investigation'' to gather and present testimony from soldiers about war crimes being committed in Southeast Asia and demonstrate they were committed as a result of American war policies. Intended as a public event, it was boycotted by much of the mainstream media, although the ''Detroit Free Press'' covered it daily and immediately began investigating what was being said. ^[10]
Veterans applying for participation in the investigation were asked if they witnessed or participated in a list of transgressions, including search and destroy missions, crop destruction, and POW mistreatment.^[11]
This event was estimated to have cost the VVAW $50-75,000.^[12] It was financially supported by the fund-raising efforts of several celebrity peace activists, with actress Jane Fonda soliciting over $10,000 in donations at 54 college campuses for the VVAW.^[13] Winter Soldier Investigation testimonies were read into the Congressional Record by Senator Hatfield. In 1972, VVAW continued antiwar protests, and released ''Winter Soldier'', a 16mm black-and-white documentary film showing participants giving testimony at the 1971 hearing, as well as footage of the Dewey Canyon III week of protest events. This film is currently on limited distribution and is now available on DVD.

Dewey Canyon III - Washington, D.C., April 1971

This peaceful anti-war protest organized by VVAW took its name from two short military invasions of Laos by US and South Vietnamese forces. Dubbed "Operation Dewey Canyon III," it took place in Washington, D.C, April 19 through April 23, 1971. It was referred to by the participants as "a limited incursion into the country of Congress." The level of media publicity and Vietnam veteran participation at the Dewey Canyon week of protest events far exceeded the Winter Soldier Investigation and any previous VVAW protest event.^[14]^[15]
Led by Gold Star Mothers (mothers of soldiers killed in war), more than 1,100 veterans marched across the Lincoln Memorial Bridge to the Arlington Cemetery gate, just beneath the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. A memorial service for their peers was conducted by Reverend Jackson H. Day, who had just a few days earlier resigned his military chaplainship. In addition to his passages of scripture and citations of poetry was a personal statement, including the following:
The Gold Star Mothers and a few others approached the cemetery gate to enter and lay wreaths, but the gate had been closed and locked upon word of their impending arrival. They placed the wreaths instead along the gate, and peacefully departed.^[15]
The march re-formed and continued to the Capitol, with Congressman Pete McCloskey joining the procession en route. McCloskey and fellow Representatives Bella Abzug, Donald Edwards, Shirley Chisholm, Edmund Muskie and Ogden Reid addressed the large crowd in a show of support. VVAW members defied a Justice Department-ordered injunction that they not camp on The Mall and set up camp anyway. Later that day, the District Court of Appeals lifted the injunction. Some members personally visited their Congressmen to lobby against the U.S. participation in the war. They presented Congress with their 16-point suggested resolution for ending the war in Vietnam.^[14]^[18]
On Tuesday, April 20, 200 veterans listened to hearings by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on proposals to end the war. Other veterans, still angry at the insult to the Gold Star Mothers when they were refused entry to Arlington National Cemetery the previous day, marched back to the front gate. After initial refusal of entry, the veterans were finally allowed in. Veterans performed guerrilla theater on the Capitol steps, re-enacting combat scenes and ''search and destroy missions'' from Vietnam. Later that evening, Democratic Senators Claiborne Pell and Philip Hart held a fund-raising party for the veterans. During the party it was announced that Chief Justice Warren Burger of the United States Supreme Court had reversed the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstated the injunction. The veterans were given until 4:30 the following afternoon to break camp and leave the National Mall. This was the fastest reversal of an Appeals Court decision in the Supreme Court's history.^[19]
On Wednesday, April 21, more than 50 veterans marched to The Pentagon and attempted to surrender and turn themselves in as war criminals. A Pentagon representative took their names and then turned them away. More veterans continued to meet with and lobby their representatives in Congress. Senator Ted Kennedy spent the day speaking with the veterans. The guerrilla theater re-enactments were moved to the steps of the Justice Department. After a close vote by the veterans, they decided to remain where they were. Many of the veterans were prepared to be arrested for continuing to camp on the National Mall, but none were arrested. Several of the patrolling park police officers reassured the veterans that arrests were not going to be made, despite orders to do so. Headlines the following day read, "VETS OVERRULE SUPREME COURT."^[20]^[19]
On Thursday, April 22, a large group of veterans demonstrated on the steps of the Supreme Court, and demanded to know why the Supreme Court had not ruled on the constitutionality of the war in Vietnam. The veterans sang "God Bless America" and 110 were arrested for disturbing the peace, and were later released. John Kerry, as VVAW spokesman, testified against the war for 2 hours in front of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee before a packed room of observers and media.^[22] The veterans continued lobbying on Capitol Hill all day. A Washington District Court judge angrily dissolved his injunction order, rebuking the Justice Department lawyers for requesting the court order and then not enforcing it. Veterans staged a candlelight march around the White House, while a huge American flag was carried upside down in the historic international signal of distress.
On Friday, April 23, more than 800 veterans, one by one, tossed their medals, ribbons, discharge papers and other war mementos on the steps of the Capitol, rejecting the Vietnam war and the significance of those awards. Several hearings in Congress were held that week regarding atrocities committed in Vietnam and the media's inaccurate coverage of the war. There were also hearings on proposals to end the United States' participation in the war. The vets planted a tree on the mall as part of a ceremony symbolizing the veterans' wish to preserve life and the environment.^[23]
Senators George McGovern and Mark Hatfield helped arrange at least $50,000 in fundraising during preparations for Dewey Canyon III. The VVAW paid $94,000 for an ad to advertise this event in the April 11, 1971 New York Times.^[19]

Walter Reed Memorial Service

In May 1971, the VVAW and former Army chaplain Reverend Jackson Day conducted a service for veterans at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Injured and disabled veterans who were inpatients there were brought into the chapel in wheelchairs. The service included time for individual prayers or public confession, and many veterans took the floor to recount things they had done or seen for which they felt guilt or anger. This was the last service performed by Jackson Day for almost two decades.^[25]

Operation POW

Operation POW, organized by the VVAW in Massachusetts, got its name from the group's concern that Americans were prisoners of the Vietnam War, as well as to honor American POWs held captive by North Vietnam. The event sought to tie antiwar activism to patriotic themes. Over the 1971 Memorial Day weekend, veterans and other participants marched from Concord, Massachusetts to a rally on Boston Common. The plan was to invoke the spirit of the American Revolution and Paul Revere by spending successive nights at the sites of the Battle of Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill, culminating in a Memorial Day rally with a public reading of the Declaration of Independence.
The event organizers requested permission in advance to camp overnight on the historic Lexington, Massachusetts Green, but were refused by the town Board of Selectmen. On the day of the marchers' arrival in Lexington, an emergency town meeting was held. The Selectmen, citing a town bylaw, insisted that the demonstrators must vacate the Green by 10:00 p.m. The VVAW and town citizens that supported them decided instead to camp on the village green. At 2:30 a.m. on May 30, local and state police awoke and arrested 441 demonstrators for trespassing. All were given the Miranda warning and were taken away on school buses to spend the night at the Lexington Public Works Garage. Julian Soshnick, a Lexington resident and charismatic lawyer of Boston Strangler fame, was among several attorneys that volunteered to represent the demonstrators. He worked out a deal with friend, colleague, and Concord Court Judge, John Forte. The protesters later paid a $5 fine and were released. The mass arrests caused a community backlash and eventually gave positive coverage to the VVAW.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Statue of Liberty occupations

On December 26, 1971, fifteen VVAW activists barricaded and occupied the Statue of Liberty for two days in a successful attempt to bring attention to the antiwar cause. Simultaneous protests took place across the country, such as at the historic Betsy Ross house in Philadelphia (for 45 minutes) and Travis Air Force Base in California (for 12 hours). Other VVAW members in California also briefly occupied the Saigon Government consulate in San Francisco. VVAW occupied the Statue of Liberty a second time in 1976 to bring renewed attention to veteran issues. ^[29]^[30]^[31]

Kansas City meeting

During a meeting in Kansas City, Missouri in mid-November 1971, Scott Camil, a radical VVAW leader, proposed the assassination of the most conservative members of United States Congress, and other powerful opponents of the antiwar movement.
According to interviews with VVAW members who were present at the Kansas City meeting, Camil suggested something he called "The Phoenix Project," named after the original Phoenix Program operations during the Vietnam War used to assassinate the Viet Cong. Mr. Camil's Phoenix Project plan was to execute the Southern senatorial leadership that was backing the war including John Tower, Strom Thurmond, and John Stennis. In Camil's words:
The assassinations were to be executed during the Senate Christmas recess. The plan was voted down, although there's a "difference of opinion" as to how close the vote was. It is unclear whether 2004-presidential candidate John Kerry was present for this meeting. His campaign indicated he wasn't there and had resigned from the organization by then. He continued to speak at anti-war events for several more months.

Post Vietnam War activities

By 1973, US combat involvement in Vietnam ended, and VVAW changed its emphasis to include advocating amnesty for draft resisters and dissenters. President Jimmy Carter eventually granted an amnesty in 1980.
There were two significant battles fought simultaneously by VVAW after the fighting in Vietnam ended in 1975, that of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Agent Orange.
As VVAW gained members in the late '60s they realized that many veterans were having readjustment problems. As early as 1970 VVAW initiated "rap groups" in which veterans could discuss the troubling aspects of the war, their disillusionment with it, and their experiences on arriving home. They enlisted the aid of two prominent psychiatrists, Dr. Robert Jay Lifton and Dr. Chaim F. Shatan to direct and add focus to their sessions. Their continued pressure and activism caused what had been known as "Post-Vietnam Syndrome" to be recognized in 1980 as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The VVAW "rap group" treatment methods are the basis for treating PTSD today.^[32]^[33]
In 1978 Chicago Veterans Administration caseworker Maude de Victor noticed a pattern in cancers and other illnesses suffered by Vietnam veterans and linked those illnesses with exposure to herbicides like Agent Orange, and it's dioxin contaminants. VVAW led veterans organizations in the struggle to force the government to test, treat and compensate the victims of those poisons. Congress mandated a study of Agent Orange in 1979. Veterans sued the herbicide manufacturers in 1982. Two years later the companies settled the suit for $180 million to compensate what at that time was over 200,000 claimants.^[34]
These were lonely campaigns since the "main stream" veterans groups regarded Vietnam veterans as "crybabies and losers" in general, and VVAW in particular was seen as being unpatriotic and anti-American. A natural ally, Vietnam Veterans of America, wasn't founded by VVAW member Robert Muller until 1978. It wasn't until 1990 that the American Legion and VVA filed suit against the government for failing to conduct the study ordered by Congress in 1979.^[35]^[36]
Several members moved on to prominent positions in society. In 1978 former VVAW member Robert Muller co-founded the Vietnam Veterans of America. Former member John Kerry became Lt. Governor of Massachusetts in 1982, and won a United States Senate seat in 1984. Ron Kovic went on to write ''Born on the Fourth of July'', an autobiography which became an Academy Award winning movie in 1989.
Every five years, members and former members attend regular reunions, with the 1992 event attracting hundreds of veterans to commemorate the founding of the organization twenty five years earlier. VVAW continues to organize programs and fundraising events in support of veterans, peace, and social justice. ”^[37]

Allegations of leadership collaboration with North Vietnam

Some declassified documents allege that VVAW leadership was actively coordinating with members of the North Vietnamese Peace delegation toward the common cause of ending US participation in the war and changing US policy in Southeast Asia. Some leaders in the VVAW organization were alleged by informants to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to have cultivated ties with the North Vietnamese representatives, forming collaborative efforts to oppose US policy in Southeast Asia. The FBI managed to gain the confidence of several VVAW members and used them to perform surveillance of the group’s activities, as part of its controversial COINTELPRO operation.
According to FBI records, an informant "who has provided credible information in the past" stated that Al Hubbard traveled to, or would travel to Paris to meet with the North Vietnamese peace delegation to arrange for a Prisoner of War release, with his trip financed by the Communist Party USA. The FBI filed a report filed on November 24, 1971, stating that on August 13, 1971, Joseph Urgo, Second Vice-President of VVAW also traveled to Hanoi. Urgo’s aim coincided with a planned international action by active duty people to demonstrate against the Vietnam war. Urgo proposed to send tapes to the North Vietnamese to use in Radio Hanoi broadcasts to get US servicemen to stop fighting in Vietnam, and proposed to send a VVAW delegation to negotiate the release of American POWs. (FBI File (S9,p153-154))
On April 4, 1972, a confidential source reported that “a representative of a North Vietnamese Government at the Paris Peace talks telephoned the 'movement' in the United States telling them to be ready to take action, presumably demonstrations, to counter expected escalation of bombing by American air forces in South Vietnam and North Vietnam as a result of the increased military action of North Vietnamese forces in Quang Tri Province, South Vietnam.” The source reported that VVAW had no specific "actions" planned at that time but that the National Steering Committee would take it up at the next meeting, and announce its plans during a press conference. page 24
Mike Oliver had hoped to send a VVAW delegation to Hanoi to coordinate an American Prisoner of War (POW) release with the North Vietnamese government. The rationale behind this was the release of US POW’s would be credited by the North Vietnamese to the VVAW organization, thereby boosting notability and credibility. Oliver had hoped that the successful release of prisoners could lead to more negotiations page 12. The VVAW's leadership also decided in a July 1971 Executive Committee meeting that terms such as "Vietcong" and "North Vietnamese" were not to be used in VVAW press releases and communications, because their use supported the "establishment idea that there are two Vietnams." Instead, they used PRG (Provisional Revolutionary Government) and DRV (Democratic Republic of Vietnam), to indicate the groups acceptance of these designations.
[1]

Similarly-named different group

The relatively small group ''Vietnam Veterans Against the War Anti-Imperialist'' (VVAW-AI) is not a faction, caucus or part of VVAW. The VVAW web site describes VVAW-AI as "the creation of an obscure, ultra-left sect called the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP) ... designed to pimp off of VVAW's history of struggle." In the mid-1970s, as VVAW membership severely dropped after the end of the war, members of Bob Avakian's militant RCP were able to gain influential positions in the VVAW, including the National Office. A rift in the remaining membership formed due to the opposed ideologies, and the RCP group formed a separate organization, ''Vietnam Veterans Against the War Anti-Imperialist'' (VVAW-AI). VVAW filed and won a lawsuit prohibiting the RCP group from using the VVAW name, logos and materials.^[38]
In 1973, after months of heated debate, the VVAW changed the name of the organization to VVAW/WSO (Winter Soldier Organization), and opened its membership to non-veterans as a remedy to its diminishing size. With these relaxed membership requirements, members of ultra-left factions like Bob Avakian's militant Revolutionary Union were able to join VVAW, ultimately leading to a takeover of the VVAW’s National Office and steering committee. By 1975, the RCP cadre had managed to obtain many key leadership positions in the organization, and effectively controlled the organization. A rift in the remaining membership formed due to the opposed ideologies, and the RCP group splintered off to form a smaller separate organization, Vietnam Veterans Against the War Anti-Imperialist (VVAW-AI). With the radical fringe elements influence removed, VVAW dropped the WSO from their name, won the court injunction against the radical group and struggled to rebuild. Deep animosity still exists between the two organizations.^[39]
The organization survived the conflict with the RCP and its general decline after the end of the Vietnam War, but as Historian Andrew Hunt put it, only as “an ineffectual fragment of its former self. ...VVAW never ceased to exist. It split, dwindled, and underwent additional transformation. Yet it did not fold.”^[40]

Source footnotes

1. Dictionary of the Vietnam War, James S. Olson, page 475
2. Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Pages 49-50
3. Marilyn B. Young, Robert Buzzanco; A Companion to the Vietnam War; Page 407
4. Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Page 57
5. FBI File 100-HQ-448092 - Section 2, Declassified through FOIA; Page 106
6. Christian G. Appy. (2004) ''Patriots: The Vietnam War Remembered from All Sides'', at page 395. Penguin. ISBN 978-0142004494.
7. Spencer C. Tucker; Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History; Page 789
8. James Olson; Dictionary of the Vietnam War; Page 476
9. The Philadelphia Inquirer, Sept. 8, 1970, page 33
10. Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, Page 87
11. Milliarium Zero/Winterfilm Collective; VVAW Historical Archive Docs. Pages 8-10
12. Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement
13. Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New Your University Press, 1999, pg 61
14. Dictionary of the Vietnam War, James Olson, pages 475-476
15. The Vietnam Wars 1945-1990, Marilyn B. Young, pages 257-259
16. The Vietnam Wars 1945-1990, Marilyn B. Young, pages 257-259
17. Dictionary of the Vietnam War, James Olson, pages 475-476
18. Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, Gerald Nicosia, page 111
19. Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, Gerald Nicosia, pages 118-143
20. Washington Daily News, April 22, 1971, page 1
21. Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, Gerald Nicosia, pages 118-143
22. C-SPAN Transcript of Kerry Testimony
23. John Kerry and Vietnam Veterans Against the War; The New Soldier; Pages 28-31
24. Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, Gerald Nicosia, pages 118-143
25. Vietnam Veteran Ministers Walter Reed Memorial
26. Unfinished Symphony: Democracy and Dissent - Documentary, 2001
27. Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists, Mary Susannah Robbins, pages 78-90
28. Lexington Minute-Man Newspaper, May 23, 1991.
29. The Veteran Magazine, Vol. 29, Number 1, Spring/Summer 1999
30. New York Sun, April 14, 2004, Page 1 -- Josh Gerstein
31. New York Times newspaper, December 27, 1971, Page 1
32. Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, Gerald Nicosia, pages 59, 162-165
33. Bessel A. Van der Kolk, Alexander C. MacFarlane, Lars Weisæth; Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society; Pages 61-62
34. Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, Gerald Nicosia, pages 490-492
35. Long Time Passing, Myra Macpherson excerpted in The American Experience in Vietnam, ed. Grace Sevy, pages 64-70
36. Myths and Realities: A Study of Attitudes Toward Vietnam Era Veterans, Veteran Administration Publications, July 1980
37. Andrew Hunt. The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War, New York University Press, 1999, page 188-189
38. VVAW Official Website - Court Order
39. Andrew Hunt. The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War, New York University Press, 1999, page 188
40. Andrew Hunt. The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War, New York University Press, 1999, page 181-182

External links

★ VVAW web site

★ History of the U.S. War in Vietnam By Barry Romo, Pete Zastrow & Joe Miller

★ The Winter Soldier Investigation sponsored by VVAW

★

★ Freekerrybook.org - Partial online version of the VVAW book, ''The New Soldier'' (note: website hostile to Kerry and VVAW, heavily edited)

★ VVAW Coordinator Barry Romo's speech against the Iraq War and cutting of veteran health care funding

★ Lexington Historical Society

★ GI Antiwar Movement films, audio clips, photos and libraries

★ My Lai Peace Park Project

★ Iraq Veterans Against the War

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VIETNAM VETERANS AGAINST THE WAR

History

Notable VVAW sponsored events

Operation RAW

Winter Soldier Investigation

Dewey Canyon III - Washington, D.C., April 1971

Walter Reed Memorial Service

Operation POW

Statue of Liberty occupations

Kansas City meeting

Post Vietnam War activities

Allegations of leadership collaboration with North Vietnam

Similarly-named different group

Source footnotes

Further reading

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