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:''There is also Virtue (musical group).''
'Virtue' (Latin ''virtus''; Greek ) is moral excellence of a person. A virtue is a character trait valued as being good. The conceptual opposite of virtue is vice.
According to its etymology the word virtue (Latin virtus) signifies manliness or courage. Taken in its widest sense virtue means the excellence of perfection of a thing, just as vice, its contrary, denotes a defect or absence of perfection due to a thing. In its strictest meaning, however, as used by moral philosophers and theologians, virtue is an operative habit essentially good, as distinguished from vice, an operative habit essentially evil. The four cardinal (hinge) virtues are Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation. These were enumerated by the Greek philosophers. The three supernatural virtues of Faith, Hope and (unselfish) Love are part of the Christian tradition. Both the natural and supernatural virtues depend on a person's understanding that truth can be discovered. Modernist views are at odds with this idea.
Virtue can also be meant in another way. Virtue can either have normative or moral value; i.e. the virtue of a knife is to cut, the virtue of an excellent knife is to cut well (this is its normative value) vs. the virtues of reason, prudence, chastity, etc. (which have moral value).
In the Greek it is more properly called (''ēthikē aretē''). It is "habitual excellence". It is something practiced at all times. The virtue of perseverance is needed for all and any virtue since it is a habit of character and must be used continuously in order for any person to maintain oneself in virtue. However, Friedrich Nietzsche stated that 'when virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous'.
The four classic Western cardinal virtues are:
★ temperance : (''sōphrosynē'')
★ prudence : (''phronēsis'')
★ fortitude : (''andreia'')
★ justice : (''dikaiosynē'')
This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy, being listed by both Plato and Socrates.
The name "cardinal" is derived from term ''cardo'' meaning hinge, which depicts the view that these four virtues are pivotal to any life of virtue.
Classically, some philosophers, most notably Plato and Aristotle, said that in order to pursue any of these virtues perfectly, one would have to master them all. For example,
in order to be just, one must be wise. The thesis of the unity of the virtues is controversial - one might argue that humans can be courageous without being wise - but it is often defended, particularly in Plato's early dialogues, by the claim that all virtues are a single sort of knowledge, perhaps 'knowledge of good and evil'. Thus, to fail to possess one of the virtues shows that one lacks the knowledge required for the possession of any of the virtues.
Aristotle says the virtues are harmonized:
★ 'dianoetic' ('''built by rationality''');
★
★ (''nous tōn archōn'') - 'understanding of substance',
★
★ (''epistēmē'') - 'science',
★
★ (''sophia'') - 'wisdom',
★
★ (''technē'') - 'practical craft',
★
★ (''phronēsis'') - 'practical mind'
★ and 'ethic' ('''built by custom''');
★
★ 'main':
★
★
★ (''andreia'') - 'courage',
★
★
★ (''sōphrosynē'') - 'temperance';
★
★ 'property-based':
★
★
★ (''eleutheriotēs'') - 'generosity',
★
★
★ (''megaloprepeia'') - 'goodwilling';
★
★ 'honor-based':
★
★
★ (''megalopsychia'') - 'pride',
★
★
★ (''philotimia'') - 'assertiveness',
★
★
★ (''praotēs'') - 'control of anger';
★
★ 'social':
★
★
★ (''eutrapelia'') - 'wittiness',
★
★
★ (''alētheia'') - 'truthfulness',
★
★
★ (''philia'') - 'friendliness';
★
★ 'political':
★
★
★ (''dikaiosynē'') - 'justice'
Nietzsche is one of the more notable philosophers who explicitly denies the unity of the virtues, asserting that they are mutually incompatible. Interestingly, Nietzsche also asserts that having one virtue is better than having many, for 'it is more of a knot for fate to hold on to.'
Seneca, the Roman Stoic said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. His point was that if you take the longest view, and consider all the consequences, in the end, a perfectly prudent person would act in the same way as a perfectly virtuous person. Many people have found it valuable to determine how each of the virtues is prudent, as well as how they harmonize.
In Christianity, the theological virtues are faith, hope and charity or love/agape, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνι δε μενει ''πιστις ελπις αγαπη'' τα τρια ταυτα μειζων δε τουτων η αγαπη ''pistis, elpis, agape''). These are said to perfect one's love of God and Man and therefore (since God is super-rational) to harmonize and partake of prudence.
Virtuous Women Proverbs 31:10-31 (NIV)
10 "A wife of noble character who can find?
She is worth far more than rubies.
11 Her husband has full confidence in her
and lacks nothing of value.
12 She brings him good, not harm,
all the days of her life.
13 She selects wool and flax
and works with eager hands.
14 She is like the merchant ships,
bringing her food from afar.
15 She gets up while it is still dark;
she provides food for her family
and portions for her servant girls.
16 She considers a field and buys it;
out of her earnings she plants a vineyard.
17 She sets about her work vigorously;
her arms are strong for her tasks.
18 She sees that her trading is profitable,
and her lamp does not go out at night.
19 In her hand she holds the distaff
and grasps the spindle with her fingers.
20 She opens her arms to the poor
and extends her hands to the needy.
21 When it snows, she has no fear for her household;
for all of them are clothed in scarlet.
22 She makes coverings for her bed;
she is clothed in fine linen and purple.
23 Her husband is respected at the city gate,
where he takes his seat among the elders of the land.
24 She makes linen garments and sells them,
and supplies the merchants with sashes.
25 She is clothed with strength and dignity;
she can laugh at the days to come.
26 She speaks with wisdom,
and faithful instruction is on her tongue.
27 She watches over the affairs of her household and does not eat the bread of idleness.
28 Her children arise and call her blessed;
her husband also, and he praises her:
29 "Many women do noble things,
but you surpass them all."
30 Charm is deceptive, and beauty is fleeting;
but a woman who fears the LORD is to be praised.
31 Give her the reward she has earned,
and let her works bring her praise at the city gate."
★ Auctoritas — "Spiritual Authority" — The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria.
★ Comitas — "Humour" — Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
★ Clementia — "Mercy" — Mildness and gentleness.
★ Dignitas — "Dignity" — A sense of self-worth, personal pride.
★ Firmitas — "Tenacity" — Strength of mind, the ability to stick to one's purpose.
★ Frugalitas — "Frugalness" — Economy and simplicity of style, without being miserly.
★ Gravitas — "Gravity" — A sense of the importance of the matter at hand, responsibility and earnestness.
★ Honestas — "Respectability" — The image that one presents as a respectable member of society.
★ Humanitas — "Humanity" — Refinement, civilization, learning, and being cultured.
★ Industria — "Industriousness" — Hard work.
★ Pietas — "Dutifulness" — More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order socially, politically, and religiously. Includes the ideas of patriotism and devotion to others.
★ Prudentia — "Prudence" — Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
★ Salubritas — "Wholesomeness" — Health and cleanliness.
★ Severitas — "Sternness" — Gravity, self-control.
★ Veritas — "Truthfulness" — Honesty in dealing with others.
Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.
#Right Viewpoint - Realizing the Four Noble Truths ''
#Right Values - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation ''
#Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way ''
#Right Actions - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm ''
#Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) ''
#Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve ''
#Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness ''
#Right Meditation - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared ''
Buddhism's four "Divine States" or ''brahmavihāra'' can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. The are:
# Metta/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is ''"the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy."''[1]
# Karuna: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the ''"wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering."''[1]
# Mudita: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy, ''"is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings."''[1]
# Upekkha/Upeksha: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others; equanimity means ''"not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."''[4]
In Hagakure, the quintessential book of the samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily:
# Never to be outdone in the way of the samurai or Bushidō
# To be of good use to the master.
# To be filial to my parents.
# To manifest great compassion, and act for the sake of Man.
Tsunetomo goes on to say:
Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche often took a more cynical view on virtue. A few of his key thoughts:
★ ''"One virtue is more of a virtue than two, because it is more of a knot for one's destiny to cling to."''
★ ''"Virtue itself is offensive."''
★ ''"When virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous."''
Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Each individual has a core of underlying values that contribute to our system of beliefs, ideas and/or opinions (see value in semiotics). Integrity in the application of a value ensures its continuity and this continuity separates a value from beliefs, opinion and ideas. In this context a value (e.g., Truth or Equality or Greed) is the core from which we operate or react. Societies have values that are shared among many of the participants in that culture. An individual's values typically are largely, but not entirely, in agreement with their culture's values.
Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of values:
★ Ethics ('virtue' - vice, good - bad, moral - immoral - amoral, right - wrong, permissible - impermissible)
★ Aesthetics (beautiful, ugly, unbalanced, pleasing)
★ Doctrinal (political, ideological, religious or social beliefs and values)
★ Innate/Inborn (inborn values such as reproduction and survival, a controversial category)
A value system is the ordered and prioritized set of values (usually of the ethical and doctrinal categories described above) that an individual or society holds.
Some virtues (a 'virtue' is a character trait 'valued' as being good) recognized in various Western cultures of the world include:
The opposite of a virtue is a vice. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. Thus the cardinal vices would be folly, venality, cowardice and lust. The Christian theological vices would be blasphemy, despair, and hatred.
However, as Aristotle noted, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and soft-headedness on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues, but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.
The seven capital vices or seven deadly sins suggest a classification of vices and were enumerated by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. The Catechism of the Catholic Church mentions them as "capital sins which Christian experience has distinguished, following St. John Cassian and St. Gregory the Great."[1] "Capital" here means that these sins stand at the head (Latin caput) of the other sins which proceed from them, e.g., theft proceeding from avarice and adultery from lust.
These vices are pride, envy, avarice, anger, lust, gluttony, and sloth. The opposite of these vices are the following virtues: meekness, humility, generosity, tolerance, chastity, moderation, and zeal (meaning enthusiastic devotion to a good cause or an ideal). These virtues are not exactly equivalent to the Seven Cardinal or Theological Virtues mentioned above. Instead these capital vices and virtues can be considered the "building blocks" that rule human behaviour. Both are acquired and reinforced by practice and the exercise of one induces or facilitates the others.
Ranked in order of severity as per Dante's Divine Comedy (in the Purgatorio), the seven deadly vices are:
#Pride or Vanity — an excessive love of self (holding self out of proper position toward God or fellows; Dante's definition was "love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one's neighbor"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, pride is referred to as superbia.
#Avarice (covetousness, Greed) — a desire to possess more than one has need or use for (or, according to Dante, "excessive love of money and power"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, avarice is referred to as avaritia.
#Lust — excessive sexual desire. Dante's criterion was "lust detracts from true love". In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, lust is referred to as luxuria.
#Wrath or Anger — feelings of hatred, revenge or even denial, as well as punitive desires outside of justice (Dante's description was "love of justice perverted to revenge and spite"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, wrath is referred to as ira.
#Gluttony — overindulgence in food, drink or intoxicants, or misplaced desire of food as a pleasure for its sensuality ("excessive love of pleasure" was Dante's rendering). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, gluttony is referred to as gula.
#Envy or jealousy; resentment of others for their possessions (Dante: "Love of one's own good perverted to a desire to deprive other men of theirs"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, envy is referred to as invidia.
#Sloth or Laziness; idleness and wastefulness of time allotted. Laziness is condemned because others have to work harder and useful work can not get done. (also accidie, acedia)
Several of these vices interlink, and various attempts at causal hierarchy have been made. For example, pride (love of self out of proportion) is implied in gluttony (the over-consumption or waste of food), as well as sloth, envy, and most of the others. Each sin is a particular way of failing to love God with all one's resources and to love fellows as much as self. The Scholastic theologians developed schema of attribute and substance of will to explain these sins.
The 4th century Egyptian monk Evagrius Ponticus defined the sins as deadly "passions," and in Eastern Orthodoxy, still these impulses are characterized as being "Deadly Passions" rather than sins. Instead, the sins are considered to invite or entertain these passions. In the official Catechism of the Catholic Church published in 1992 by Pope John Paul II, these seven vices are considered moral transgression for Christians and the virtues should complement the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes as the basis for any true Morality.
"Virtue", translated from Chinese ''de'' (), is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. ''De'' () originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English '', with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".
Confucian moral manifestations of "virtue" include ''ren'' ("humanity"), ''xiao'' ("filial piety"), and ''zhong'' ("loyalty") In Confucianism the notion of ren according to Simon Leys means "humanity" and "goodness". Originally ren had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", then progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. (On the origins and transformations of this concept see Lin Yu-sheng: "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy," Monumenta Serica, vol31, 1974-75.)
The Daoist concept of ''De'', however, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates rather than from one's birth. In the ''Analects'', Confucius explains ''de'': "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." (2/1, tr. James Legge)[1]
Martin Seligman and other researchers involved in the positive psychology movement, frustrated by psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable , set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues" applicable to the widest possible range of human cultures. Although few if any virtues are truly universally valued, Seligman claims that the ones on his list are all considered important by an overwhelming majority of cultures; although rare communities that do not admire kindness or courage may exist, they are clearly exceptional.
The researchers discovered a total of twenty-four virtues that are universal or nearly so, divided into six basic types.
★ 'Wisdom and Knowledge': creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective
★ 'Courage': bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
★ 'Humanity': love, kindness, social intelligence
★ 'Justice': citizenship, fairness, leadership
★ 'Temperance': forgiveness and mercy, humility and modesty, prudence, self-regulation
★ 'Transcendence': appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality
#''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', Catholic University of America, 1967. pg 704.
1. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables
2. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables
3. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables
4. http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html A View on Buddhism, THE FOUR IMMEASURABLES: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity
★ Aretology
★ Bushido
★ Chivalry
★ Consequentialism
★ Epistemic virtue
★ Ethics
★ Five Virtues (Sikh)
★ Goodness
★ Intellectual virtues
★ Knightly Virtues
★ Morality
★ Paideia
★ Seven Deadly Sins
★ Sin
★ Social justice
★ Three Jewels of the Tao
★ Three theological virtues
★ Tree of virtues
★ Value theory
★ Vice
★ Virtue ethics
★ Virtues of Ultima
★ Cardinal, Contrary, Heavenly and other Virtues
★ Virtues in Quran
★ The Four Virtues
★ Virtues Project International
★ VirtueScience.com
★ ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Cardinal Virtues"
★ ''Summa Theologica'' "Second Part of the Second Part"
'Virtue' (Latin ''virtus''; Greek ) is moral excellence of a person. A virtue is a character trait valued as being good. The conceptual opposite of virtue is vice.
According to its etymology the word virtue (Latin virtus) signifies manliness or courage. Taken in its widest sense virtue means the excellence of perfection of a thing, just as vice, its contrary, denotes a defect or absence of perfection due to a thing. In its strictest meaning, however, as used by moral philosophers and theologians, virtue is an operative habit essentially good, as distinguished from vice, an operative habit essentially evil. The four cardinal (hinge) virtues are Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation. These were enumerated by the Greek philosophers. The three supernatural virtues of Faith, Hope and (unselfish) Love are part of the Christian tradition. Both the natural and supernatural virtues depend on a person's understanding that truth can be discovered. Modernist views are at odds with this idea.
Virtue can also be meant in another way. Virtue can either have normative or moral value; i.e. the virtue of a knife is to cut, the virtue of an excellent knife is to cut well (this is its normative value) vs. the virtues of reason, prudence, chastity, etc. (which have moral value).
In the Greek it is more properly called (''ēthikē aretē''). It is "habitual excellence". It is something practiced at all times. The virtue of perseverance is needed for all and any virtue since it is a habit of character and must be used continuously in order for any person to maintain oneself in virtue. However, Friedrich Nietzsche stated that 'when virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous'.
Four classic Western virtues
The four classic Western cardinal virtues are:
★ temperance : (''sōphrosynē'')
★ prudence : (''phronēsis'')
★ fortitude : (''andreia'')
★ justice : (''dikaiosynē'')
This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy, being listed by both Plato and Socrates.
Unity of the virtues
The name "cardinal" is derived from term ''cardo'' meaning hinge, which depicts the view that these four virtues are pivotal to any life of virtue.
Classically, some philosophers, most notably Plato and Aristotle, said that in order to pursue any of these virtues perfectly, one would have to master them all. For example,
in order to be just, one must be wise. The thesis of the unity of the virtues is controversial - one might argue that humans can be courageous without being wise - but it is often defended, particularly in Plato's early dialogues, by the claim that all virtues are a single sort of knowledge, perhaps 'knowledge of good and evil'. Thus, to fail to possess one of the virtues shows that one lacks the knowledge required for the possession of any of the virtues.
Aristotle says the virtues are harmonized:
★ 'dianoetic' ('''built by rationality''');
★
★ (''nous tōn archōn'') - 'understanding of substance',
★
★ (''epistēmē'') - 'science',
★
★ (''sophia'') - 'wisdom',
★
★ (''technē'') - 'practical craft',
★
★ (''phronēsis'') - 'practical mind'
★ and 'ethic' ('''built by custom''');
★
★ 'main':
★
★
★ (''andreia'') - 'courage',
★
★
★ (''sōphrosynē'') - 'temperance';
★
★ 'property-based':
★
★
★ (''eleutheriotēs'') - 'generosity',
★
★
★ (''megaloprepeia'') - 'goodwilling';
★
★ 'honor-based':
★
★
★ (''megalopsychia'') - 'pride',
★
★
★ (''philotimia'') - 'assertiveness',
★
★
★ (''praotēs'') - 'control of anger';
★
★ 'social':
★
★
★ (''eutrapelia'') - 'wittiness',
★
★
★ (''alētheia'') - 'truthfulness',
★
★
★ (''philia'') - 'friendliness';
★
★ 'political':
★
★
★ (''dikaiosynē'') - 'justice'
Nietzsche is one of the more notable philosophers who explicitly denies the unity of the virtues, asserting that they are mutually incompatible. Interestingly, Nietzsche also asserts that having one virtue is better than having many, for 'it is more of a knot for fate to hold on to.'
Prudence and virtue
Seneca, the Roman Stoic said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. His point was that if you take the longest view, and consider all the consequences, in the end, a perfectly prudent person would act in the same way as a perfectly virtuous person. Many people have found it valuable to determine how each of the virtues is prudent, as well as how they harmonize.
Christian virtues
In Christianity, the theological virtues are faith, hope and charity or love/agape, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνι δε μενει ''πιστις ελπις αγαπη'' τα τρια ταυτα μειζων δε τουτων η αγαπη ''pistis, elpis, agape''). These are said to perfect one's love of God and Man and therefore (since God is super-rational) to harmonize and partake of prudence.
Virtuous Women Proverbs 31:10-31 (NIV)
10 "A wife of noble character who can find?
She is worth far more than rubies.
11 Her husband has full confidence in her
and lacks nothing of value.
12 She brings him good, not harm,
all the days of her life.
13 She selects wool and flax
and works with eager hands.
14 She is like the merchant ships,
bringing her food from afar.
15 She gets up while it is still dark;
she provides food for her family
and portions for her servant girls.
16 She considers a field and buys it;
out of her earnings she plants a vineyard.
17 She sets about her work vigorously;
her arms are strong for her tasks.
18 She sees that her trading is profitable,
and her lamp does not go out at night.
19 In her hand she holds the distaff
and grasps the spindle with her fingers.
20 She opens her arms to the poor
and extends her hands to the needy.
21 When it snows, she has no fear for her household;
for all of them are clothed in scarlet.
22 She makes coverings for her bed;
she is clothed in fine linen and purple.
23 Her husband is respected at the city gate,
where he takes his seat among the elders of the land.
24 She makes linen garments and sells them,
and supplies the merchants with sashes.
25 She is clothed with strength and dignity;
she can laugh at the days to come.
26 She speaks with wisdom,
and faithful instruction is on her tongue.
27 She watches over the affairs of her household and does not eat the bread of idleness.
28 Her children arise and call her blessed;
her husband also, and he praises her:
29 "Many women do noble things,
but you surpass them all."
30 Charm is deceptive, and beauty is fleeting;
but a woman who fears the LORD is to be praised.
31 Give her the reward she has earned,
and let her works bring her praise at the city gate."
Roman virtues
★ Auctoritas — "Spiritual Authority" — The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria.
★ Comitas — "Humour" — Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
★ Clementia — "Mercy" — Mildness and gentleness.
★ Dignitas — "Dignity" — A sense of self-worth, personal pride.
★ Firmitas — "Tenacity" — Strength of mind, the ability to stick to one's purpose.
★ Frugalitas — "Frugalness" — Economy and simplicity of style, without being miserly.
★ Gravitas — "Gravity" — A sense of the importance of the matter at hand, responsibility and earnestness.
★ Honestas — "Respectability" — The image that one presents as a respectable member of society.
★ Humanitas — "Humanity" — Refinement, civilization, learning, and being cultured.
★ Industria — "Industriousness" — Hard work.
★ Pietas — "Dutifulness" — More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order socially, politically, and religiously. Includes the ideas of patriotism and devotion to others.
★ Prudentia — "Prudence" — Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
★ Salubritas — "Wholesomeness" — Health and cleanliness.
★ Severitas — "Sternness" — Gravity, self-control.
★ Veritas — "Truthfulness" — Honesty in dealing with others.
Buddhist virtues
Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.
#Right Viewpoint - Realizing the Four Noble Truths ''
#Right Values - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation ''
#Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way ''
#Right Actions - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm ''
#Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) ''
#Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve ''
#Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness ''
#Right Meditation - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared ''
Buddhism's four "Divine States" or ''brahmavihāra'' can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. The are:
# Metta/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is ''"the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy."''[1]
# Karuna: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the ''"wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering."''[1]
# Mudita: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy, ''"is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings."''[1]
# Upekkha/Upeksha: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others; equanimity means ''"not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."''[4]
Samurai values
In Hagakure, the quintessential book of the samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily:
# Never to be outdone in the way of the samurai or Bushidō
# To be of good use to the master.
# To be filial to my parents.
# To manifest great compassion, and act for the sake of Man.
Tsunetomo goes on to say:
If one dedicates these four vows to the gods and Buddhas every morning, he will have the strength of two men and never slip backward. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow.
Nietzsche on Virtue
Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche often took a more cynical view on virtue. A few of his key thoughts:
★ ''"One virtue is more of a virtue than two, because it is more of a knot for one's destiny to cling to."''
★ ''"Virtue itself is offensive."''
★ ''"When virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous."''
Virtues and values
Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Each individual has a core of underlying values that contribute to our system of beliefs, ideas and/or opinions (see value in semiotics). Integrity in the application of a value ensures its continuity and this continuity separates a value from beliefs, opinion and ideas. In this context a value (e.g., Truth or Equality or Greed) is the core from which we operate or react. Societies have values that are shared among many of the participants in that culture. An individual's values typically are largely, but not entirely, in agreement with their culture's values.
Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of values:
★ Ethics ('virtue' - vice, good - bad, moral - immoral - amoral, right - wrong, permissible - impermissible)
★ Aesthetics (beautiful, ugly, unbalanced, pleasing)
★ Doctrinal (political, ideological, religious or social beliefs and values)
★ Innate/Inborn (inborn values such as reproduction and survival, a controversial category)
A value system is the ordered and prioritized set of values (usually of the ethical and doctrinal categories described above) that an individual or society holds.
Some virtues (a 'virtue' is a character trait 'valued' as being good) recognized in various Western cultures of the world include:
Virtue and vice
The opposite of a virtue is a vice. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. Thus the cardinal vices would be folly, venality, cowardice and lust. The Christian theological vices would be blasphemy, despair, and hatred.
However, as Aristotle noted, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and soft-headedness on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues, but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.
Capital vices
The seven capital vices or seven deadly sins suggest a classification of vices and were enumerated by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. The Catechism of the Catholic Church mentions them as "capital sins which Christian experience has distinguished, following St. John Cassian and St. Gregory the Great."[1] "Capital" here means that these sins stand at the head (Latin caput) of the other sins which proceed from them, e.g., theft proceeding from avarice and adultery from lust.
These vices are pride, envy, avarice, anger, lust, gluttony, and sloth. The opposite of these vices are the following virtues: meekness, humility, generosity, tolerance, chastity, moderation, and zeal (meaning enthusiastic devotion to a good cause or an ideal). These virtues are not exactly equivalent to the Seven Cardinal or Theological Virtues mentioned above. Instead these capital vices and virtues can be considered the "building blocks" that rule human behaviour. Both are acquired and reinforced by practice and the exercise of one induces or facilitates the others.
Ranked in order of severity as per Dante's Divine Comedy (in the Purgatorio), the seven deadly vices are:
#Pride or Vanity — an excessive love of self (holding self out of proper position toward God or fellows; Dante's definition was "love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one's neighbor"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, pride is referred to as superbia.
#Avarice (covetousness, Greed) — a desire to possess more than one has need or use for (or, according to Dante, "excessive love of money and power"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, avarice is referred to as avaritia.
#Lust — excessive sexual desire. Dante's criterion was "lust detracts from true love". In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, lust is referred to as luxuria.
#Wrath or Anger — feelings of hatred, revenge or even denial, as well as punitive desires outside of justice (Dante's description was "love of justice perverted to revenge and spite"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, wrath is referred to as ira.
#Gluttony — overindulgence in food, drink or intoxicants, or misplaced desire of food as a pleasure for its sensuality ("excessive love of pleasure" was Dante's rendering). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, gluttony is referred to as gula.
#Envy or jealousy; resentment of others for their possessions (Dante: "Love of one's own good perverted to a desire to deprive other men of theirs"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, envy is referred to as invidia.
#Sloth or Laziness; idleness and wastefulness of time allotted. Laziness is condemned because others have to work harder and useful work can not get done. (also accidie, acedia)
Several of these vices interlink, and various attempts at causal hierarchy have been made. For example, pride (love of self out of proportion) is implied in gluttony (the over-consumption or waste of food), as well as sloth, envy, and most of the others. Each sin is a particular way of failing to love God with all one's resources and to love fellows as much as self. The Scholastic theologians developed schema of attribute and substance of will to explain these sins.
The 4th century Egyptian monk Evagrius Ponticus defined the sins as deadly "passions," and in Eastern Orthodoxy, still these impulses are characterized as being "Deadly Passions" rather than sins. Instead, the sins are considered to invite or entertain these passions. In the official Catechism of the Catholic Church published in 1992 by Pope John Paul II, these seven vices are considered moral transgression for Christians and the virtues should complement the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes as the basis for any true Morality.
Virtue in Chinese philosophy
"Virtue", translated from Chinese ''de'' (), is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. ''De'' () originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English '', with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".
Confucian moral manifestations of "virtue" include ''ren'' ("humanity"), ''xiao'' ("filial piety"), and ''zhong'' ("loyalty") In Confucianism the notion of ren according to Simon Leys means "humanity" and "goodness". Originally ren had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", then progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. (On the origins and transformations of this concept see Lin Yu-sheng: "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy," Monumenta Serica, vol31, 1974-75.)
The Daoist concept of ''De'', however, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates rather than from one's birth. In the ''Analects'', Confucius explains ''de'': "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." (2/1, tr. James Legge)[1]
Virtue in modern psychology
Martin Seligman and other researchers involved in the positive psychology movement, frustrated by psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable , set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues" applicable to the widest possible range of human cultures. Although few if any virtues are truly universally valued, Seligman claims that the ones on his list are all considered important by an overwhelming majority of cultures; although rare communities that do not admire kindness or courage may exist, they are clearly exceptional.
The researchers discovered a total of twenty-four virtues that are universal or nearly so, divided into six basic types.
★ 'Wisdom and Knowledge': creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective
★ 'Courage': bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
★ 'Humanity': love, kindness, social intelligence
★ 'Justice': citizenship, fairness, leadership
★ 'Temperance': forgiveness and mercy, humility and modesty, prudence, self-regulation
★ 'Transcendence': appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality
References
#''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', Catholic University of America, 1967. pg 704.
1. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables
2. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables
3. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables
4. http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html A View on Buddhism, THE FOUR IMMEASURABLES: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity
See also
★ Aretology
★ Bushido
★ Chivalry
★ Consequentialism
★ Epistemic virtue
★ Ethics
★ Five Virtues (Sikh)
★ Goodness
★ Intellectual virtues
★ Knightly Virtues
★ Morality
★ Paideia
★ Seven Deadly Sins
★ Sin
★ Social justice
★ Three Jewels of the Tao
★ Three theological virtues
★ Tree of virtues
★ Value theory
★ Vice
★ Virtue ethics
★ Virtues of Ultima
External links
★ Cardinal, Contrary, Heavenly and other Virtues
★ Virtues in Quran
★ The Four Virtues
★ Virtues Project International
★ VirtueScience.com
★ ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Cardinal Virtues"
★ ''Summa Theologica'' "Second Part of the Second Part"
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