'' ( or ,
officially 日本国 ''Nihon-koku'' or ''Nippon-koku'') is an
island country in
East Asia. Located in the
Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of
China,
Korea and
Russia, stretching from the
Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the
East China Sea in the south. The
characters that make up
Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes identified as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan comprises over three thousand islands,
[1] the largest of which are
Honshū,
HokkaidÅ,
Kyūshū and
Shikoku, together accounting for 97% of land area. Most of the islands are
mountainous, many
volcanic; for example, Japan’s highest peak,
Mount Fuji, is a volcano. Japan has the world's
tenth largest population, with about 128 million people. The
Greater Tokyo Area, which includes
the capital city of
Tokyo and several surrounding
prefectures, is the
largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the
Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in
Chinese history texts from the first century AD. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Thus, its culture today is a mixture of outside influences and internal developments. Since adopting its
constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a
unitary constitutional monarchy with an
emperor and an elected parliament, the
Diet.
A
great power,
[2] Japan's economy is the world's
second largest by
nominal GDP after the
United States. It is a member of the
United Nations,
G8,
G4 and
APEC, with the world's
fifth largest defense budget. It is the world's
fourth largest exporter and
sixth largest importer.
History
Main articles: History of Japan
The first signs of occupation on the
Japanese archipelago appeared with a
Paleolithic culture around
30,000 BC, followed from around
14,000 BC by the
JÅmon period, a
Mesolithic to
Neolithic semi-sedentary
hunter-gatherer culture of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of
agriculture. Decorated clay vessels from this period, often with plaited patterns, are some of the oldest surviving examples of
pottery in the world.
[3]
The
Yayoi period, starting around the third century BC, introduced new practices, such as wet-rice farming,
iron and
bronze-making and a new style of pottery, brought by migrants from
China or
Korea. With the development of Yayoi culture, a predominantly agricultural society emerged in Japan.
[4][5][6][7]
The Japanese first appear in written history in China’s ''
Book of Han''. According to the Chinese ''
Records of the Three Kingdoms'', the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the third century was called
Yamataikoku.
Japan was first introduced to
Buddhism from
Korea, but the subsequent development of
Japanese Buddhism and Buddhist sculptures were primarily influenced by
China.
[8] Despite early resistance,
Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and eventually gained growing acceptance since the
Asuka period.
[9]
The
Nara period of the eighth century marked the first emergence of a strong central Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of
HeijÅ-kyÅ, or modern day
Nara. In addition to the continuing adoption of Chinese administrative practices, the
Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent written literature with the completion of the massive chronicles ''
Kojiki'' (712) and ''
Nihonshoki'' (720).
[10]
In 784,
Emperor Kammu moved the capital to
NagaokakyÅ for a brief ten-year period, before relocating it to Heian-kyÅ (modern day
Kyoto) in 794, where it remained for more than a millennium.
[10] This marked the beginning of the
Heian period, during which time a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its
art,
poetry and
literature.
Lady Murasaki's ''
The Tale of Genji'' and the lyrics of modern Japan's national anthem, ''
Kimi ga Yo'' were written during this time.
[10]
Japan's
feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the
samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival
Taira clan,
Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed
Shogun and established a base of power in
Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the
HÅjÅ clan came to rule as regents for the shoguns.
Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the
Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The
Kamakura shogunate managed to repel
Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, aided by a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a
kamikaze, or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate was eventually overthrown by
Emperor Go-Daigo, who was soon himself defeated by
Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.
[13] The succeeding
Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (''
daimyo''), and a civil war erupted (the
ÅŒnin War).
[13]
During the sixteenth century, traders and
missionaries from
Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the ''
Nanban'' ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.
Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and
firearms and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi
invaded Korea twice, but following several defeats by
Korean and
Ming China forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.
[15]
One of Japan's
Red seal ships (1634), which were used for trade throughout Asia.
After Hideyoshi's death,
Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as regent for Hideyoshi's son
Toyotomi Hideyori to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the
Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed
shÅgun in 1603 and established the
Tokugawa shogunate at
Edo (modern
Tokyo). The
Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures to control the
daimyo, among them the ''
sankin kÅtai'' policy. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist ''
sakoku'' ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the
Edo period. The study of Western sciences, known as ''
rangaku'', continued during this period through contacts with the
Dutch enclave at
Dejima in
Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to ''
kokugaku'', or literally "national studies", the study of Japan by the Japanese themselves.
[16]
On
March 31,
1854,
Commodore Matthew Perry and the "
Black Ships" of the
United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the
Convention of Kanagawa. The
Boshin War of 1867–1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the
Meiji Restoration established a government centered around the emperor. Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, a
parliamentary system modeled after the
British parliament was introduced, with
ItÅ Hirobumi as the first Prime Minister in 1882.
Meiji era reforms transformed the
Empire of Japan into an
industrialized world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to increase access to natural resources. After victories in the
First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of
Korea,
Taiwan and the southern half of
Sakhalin.
[17]
The early twentieth century saw a brief period of "
Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of
Japanese expansionism and
militarization.
World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying
Manchuria in 1931. As a result of international condemnation for this occupation, Japan resigned from the
League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the
Anti-Comintern Pact with
Nazi Germany, joining the
Axis Powers in 1941.
[18]
In 1937, Japan invaded other parts of
China, precipitating the
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), after which the
United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.
[19]
On
December 7,
1941, Japan
attacked the United States naval base in
Pearl Harbor and declared war on the
United States, the
United Kingdom and the
Netherlands. This act brought the United States into
World War II. After the
atomic bombings of
Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in 1945, along with the Soviet Union joining the war against it, Japan agreed to an
unconditional surrender on
August 15 (
V-J Day).
[20] The war cost Japan millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The
International Military Tribunal for the Far East, was convened by the
Allies (on
May 3,
1946) to prosecute Japanese leaders for
war crimes such as the
Nanking Massacre.
[21]
In 1947, Japan adopted a new
pacifist constitution emphasizing
liberal democratic practices. Official
American occupation lasted until 1952
[22] and Japan was granted membership in the
United Nations in 1956. Under a subsequent program of aggressive industrial development aided by the US, Japan achieved
spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with an annual growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered
a major recession. Positive growth in the early twenty-first century has signaled a gradual recovery.
[23]
Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Japan,
Politics of Japan
Japan is a
constitutional monarchy where the power of the
Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the
constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held chiefly by the
Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the
Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the
Japanese people.
[24] The Emperor effectively acts as the
head of state on diplomatic occasions.
Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan.
Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne.
Japan's legislative organ is the
National Diet, a bicameral
parliament. The Diet consists of a
House of Representatives, containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved and a
House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is
universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,
[25] with a
secret ballot for all elective offices.
The
liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived
coalition government formed from opposition parties in 1993.
[26] The largest opposition party is the
social liberal Democratic Party of Japan.
The Prime Minister of Japan is the
head of government. The position is appointed by the
Emperor of Japan after being designated by the
Diet from among its members and must enjoy the confidence of the
House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the
Cabinet (the literal translation of his Japanese title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet") and appoints and dismisses the
Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members.
Shinzo Abe currently serves as the Prime Minister of Japan.
[27]
Historically influenced by
Chinese law, the
Japanese legal system developed independently during the
Edo period through texts such as ''
Kujikata Osadamegaki''. However, since the late nineteenth century, the
judicial system has been largely based on the
civil law of
Europe, notably
France and
Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a
civil code based on the German model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.
[28] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber-stamp approval of the Emperor. The current constitution requires that the Emperor promulgates legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose the passing of the legislation.
Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the
Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.
[29] The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the
Six Codes.
Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Japan,
Japan Self-Defense Forces,
Ministry of Defense (Japan)
Sailors aboard the
JMSDF training vessel JDS Kashima.
Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the
United States, with the
US-Japan security alliance serving as the cornerstone of its
foreign policy.
[30] A member state of the
United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent
Security Council member for a
total of 18 years, most recently in 2005–2006. It is also one of the
G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.
[31] As a member of the
G8, the
APEC, the "
ASEAN Plus Three" and a participant in the
East Asia Summit, Japan actively participates in international affairs. It is also the world's second-largest donor of
official development assistance, donating 0.19% of its
GNP in 2004.
[32] Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the
Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces from
Iraq.
[33]
Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with
Russia over the
South Kuril Islands, with
South Korea over the
Liancourt Rocks, with
China and
Taiwan over the
Senkaku Islands and with China over the status of
Okinotorishima.
[34] Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with
North Korea over its
abduction of Japanese citizens and its
nuclear weapons and missile program.
Japan's military is restricted by
Article 9 of the
Constitution of Japan, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force as a means of settling international disputes, although the current government is seeking to amend the Constitution via a referendum.
[35] Japan's military is governed by the
Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the
Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in
peacekeeping operations and the
deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since
World War II.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Prefectures of Japan,
Cities of Japan,
Towns of Japan,
Villages of Japan,
List of Japanese cities by population
While there exist eight commonly defined
regions of Japan, administratively Japan consists of
forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. The
former city of Tokyo is further divided into
twenty-three special wards, each with the same powers as cities.
The nation is currently undergoing administrative
reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.
[36]
Japan has dozens of
major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy. Those in the list below of the ten most populous are all prefectural capitals and
Government Ordinance Cities, except where indicated:
| | City | Prefecture | Population[37] |
|---|
| 1 | 'Tokyo'a | Tokyo | 8,535,792 |
2 | 'Yokohama' | Kanagawa | 3,602,758 | 3 | 'Osaka' | Osaka | 2,635,420 | 4 | 'Nagoya' | Aichi | 2,223,148 | 5 | 'Sapporo' | HokkaidÅ | 1,888,953 | 6 | 'Kobe' | HyÅgo | 1,528,687 | 7 | 'Kyoto' | Kyoto | 1,472,511 | 8 | 'Fukuoka' | Fukuoka | 1,414,417 | 9 | 'Kawasaki'b | Kanagawa | 1,342,262 | 10 | 'Saitama' | Saitama | 1,182,744 |
Geography and climate
Main articles: Geography of Japan
Japan from space, May 2003.
Japan is a country of over three thousand islands extending along the
Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are
HokkaidÅ,
Honshū (the main island),
Shikoku and
Kyūshū. The
Ryukyu Islands, including
Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the
Japanese Archipelago.
About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous,
[38][39] and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use. This is due to the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Japan is the thirtieth
most densely populated country in the world.
[40]
Its location on the
Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive
earthquakes, often resulting in
tsunamis, occur several times each century.
[41] The most recent major quakes are the
2004 Chūetsu earthquake and the
Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995.
Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.
[42]
The climate of Japan is predominantly
temperate, but varies greatly from north to south.
[43] Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
★
HokkaidÅ: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers.
Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
★
Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the
Föhn wind phenomenon.
★
Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
★
Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the
Chūgoku and
Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
★
Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
★
South-west Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.
Typhoons are common.
The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan - 40.9 degrees Celsius - was recorded on August 16, 2007.
[44]
The main
rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching HokkaidŠin late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn,
typhoons often bring heavy rain.
Japan is home to nine forest
ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from
subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to
temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to
temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.
[45]
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Japan
Close
government-
industry cooperation, a strong
work ethic, mastery of
high technology, and a comparatively small
defense allocation have helped Japan become the
second largest economy in the world,
[46] after the
United States, at around US$4.5
trillion in terms of
nominal GDP and third after the
United States and
China in terms of
purchasing power parity.
[47]
Banking,
insurance,
real estate,
retailing,
transportation and
telecommunications are all major industries. Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of
motor vehicles,
electronic equipment,
machine tools,
steel and nonferrous
metals,
ships,
chemicals,
textiles and
processed foods. It is home to leading
multinational corporations and commercial
brands in
technology and
machinery.
has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy have included the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors and banks in closely-knit groups called ''
keiretsu'' and the guarantee of
lifetime employment in big corporations.
[48] Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
[49]
With a market capitalization of more than US$4 trillion, the
Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest in the world.
Japan is home to the world's largest bank,
[50] the
Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group,
[51] which has roughly US$1.7
trillion in
assets;
the world's largest
postal savings system; and the largest holder of
personal savings,
Japan Post, holding personal savings valued at around US$3.3
trillion. It is home to the world's second largest
stock exchange, the
Tokyo Stock Exchange, with a market
capitalization of over 549.7
trillion Yen as of December 2006.
[52] It is also home to some of the largest
financial services companies,
business groups and
banks. For instance several large
keiretsus (business groups) and multinational companies such as
Sony,
Sumitomo,
Mitsubishi and
Toyota own billion- and trillion-
dollar operating
banks,
investment groups and/or financial services such as
Sumitomo Bank,
Fuji Bank,
Mitsubishi Bank,
Toyota Financial Services and
Sony Financial Holdings.
From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called
a "miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s.
[53] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely due to the after-effects of
over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the deceleration of the global economy.
[54] However, the economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and
European Union during the same period.
[55]
Because only about 15% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation,
[56] a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area. However, Japan's small
agricultural sector is also highly subsidized and protected. Japan must import about 50%
[57] of its requirements of
grain and fodder crops other than rice, and it relies on imports for most of its supply of
meat. In fishing, Japan is ranked second in the world behind
China in tonnage of fish caught. Japan maintains one of the world's largest
fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch.
Japan relies on foreign countries for almost all
oil and
food.
[58]
Transportation in Japan is highly developed. As of 2004, there are 1,177,278
km (731,683
miles) of paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km (14,653 miles) of
railways.
Air transport is mostly operated by
All Nippon Airways (ANA) and
Japan Airlines (JAL). Railways are operated by
Japan Railways among others. There are extensive international flights from many cities and countries to and from Japan.
Japan's main export partners are the
United States 22.9%,
China 13.4%,
South Korea 7.8%,
Taiwan 7.3% and
Hong Kong 6.1% (for 2005). Japan's main exports are transport equipment,
motor vehicles,
electronics, electrical machinery and
chemicals.
With very limited
natural resources to sustain economic development, Japan depends on other nations for most of its raw materials; thus it imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are
China 21%,
U.S. 12.7%,
Saudi Arabia 5.5%,
UAE 4.9%,
Australia 4.7%,
South Korea 4.7% and
Indonesia 4% (for 2005). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment,
fossil fuels,
foodstuffs (in particular
beef),
chemicals,
textiles and raw materials for its industries. Overall, Japan's largest trading partner is
China.
[59]
Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in Japan
Japan is a leading nation in the fields of
scientific research,
technology,
machinery and
medical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a
US$130 billion
research and development budget, the third largest in the world.
[60]
Some of Japan's more important technological contributions are found in the fields of
electronics,
automobiles,
machinery,
industrial robotics,
optics,
chemicals,
semiconductors and
metals. Japan leads the world in
robotics, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.
[61] It also produced
QRIO,
ASIMO and
Aibo. Japan is the world's largest producer of automobiles
[62] and home to six of the
world's fifteen largest automobile manufacturers and seven of the
world's twenty largest semiconductor sales leaders.
Japan has significant plans in
space exploration, including building a
moonbase by 2030.
[63] The
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It also built the
Japanese Experiment Module, which is slated to be launched and added to the
International Space Station during
Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008.
[64]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Japan,
Japanese language,
Religion in Japan
Japan's population is estimated at around 127.4 million.
[65] For the most part, Japanese society is
linguistically and culturally homogeneous with small populations of foreign workers,
Zainichi Koreans,
Japanese Chinese,
Japanese Filipinos,
Japanese Brazilians and others. Japan also has indigenous
minority groups such as the
Ainu and
Ryūkyūans, as well as social minority groups like the ''
burakumin''.
Japan has one of the highest
life expectancy rates in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.
[66] However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of
a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the twentieth century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65.
[67]
The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the
public pension plan. It is also noted that many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to
marry or have families as adults.
Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050 and to 64 million by 2100.
Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.
[68] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.
[69] Immigration, however, is not popular.
[70]
Around 84% of Japanese people profess to believe both
Shinto (the indigenous religion of Japan) and
Buddhism.
[65] Buddhism,
Taoism and
Confucianism from China have significantly influenced Japanese beliefs and mythology. Religion in Japan tends to be
syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating
Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a
Christian church and funerals being held at
Buddhist temples. A minority (0.7%) profess to
Christianity.
In addition, since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (''
ShinshÅ«kyÅ'') have emerged in Japan.
About 99% of the population speaks
Japanese as their first language.
65 It is an
agglutinative language distinguished by a system of
honorifics reflecting the
hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese has borrowed or derived large amounts of vocabulary from
Chinese and, since the end of World War II,
English. The
writing system uses
kanji (
Chinese characters) and two sets of
kana (
syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the
Roman alphabet and
Arabic numerals. The
Ryūkyūan languages, also part of the
Japonic language family to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in
Okinawa, but few children learn these languages.
[72] The
Ainu language is
moribund, with only a few elderly
native speakers remaining in
HokkaidÅ.
[73] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.
[74]
Education and health
Main articles: Education in Japan,
Health care in Japan
Primary, secondary schools and universities were introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the
Meiji Restoration.
[75] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan consists of
elementary school and
middle school, which lasts for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior
high school, and, according to the
MEXT, about 75.9% of high school graduates attend a
university,
junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2005.
[76] Japan's education is very competitive,
[77] especially for entrance to institutions of higher education. According to
The Times Higher Education Supplement, the two top-ranking universities in Japan are the
University of Tokyo and
Kyoto University.
[78]
In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.
[79] Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.
[80]
Culture and recreation
Main articles: Culture of Japan
Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original
JÅmon culture to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from
Asia,
Europe and
North America. Traditional
Japanese arts include
crafts (
ikebana,
origami,
ukiyo-e,
dolls,
lacquerware,
pottery), performances (
bunraku,
dance,
kabuki,
noh,
rakugo), traditions (
games,
tea ceremony,
budÅ,
architecture,
gardens,
swords) and
cuisine. The fusion of traditional
woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of
manga, a typically Japanese
comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.
[81] Manga-influenced
animation for television and film is called
anime. Japanese-made
video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s.
[82]
Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the
koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied
recitative of the
Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like
shamisen, from the sixteenth.
[83] Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called
J-Pop.
[84] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the
Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural pursuits such as
flower arranging or
tea ceremony.
[85]
The earliest works of
Japanese literature include two history books the ''
Kojiki'' and the ''
Nihon Shoki'' and the eighth century poetry book ''
Man'yÅshÅ«'', all written in Chinese characters.
[86] In the early days of the
Heian period, the system of transcription known as ''kana'' (
Hiragana and
Katakana) was created as phonograms. ''
The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter'' is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.
[87] An account of Heian court life is given by ''
The Pillow Book'' written by
Sei ShÅnagon, while ''
The Tale of Genji'' by
Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's first novel. During the
Edo Period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the
chÅnin, the ordinary people.
Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.
The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences.
Natsume SÅseki and
Mori Ogai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by
Akutagawa Ryūnosuke,
Tanizaki Jun'ichirÅ,
Kawabata Yasunari,
Mishima Yukio and, more recently,
Murakami Haruki. Japan has two
Nobel Prize-winning authors—
Kawabata Yasunari (1968) and
Oe Kenzaburo (1994).
Sports
Main articles: Sport in Japan
Sumo, a traditional Japanese sport.
Traditionally,
sumo is considered Japan's
national sport and it is one of the most popular spectator sports in Japan.
[88] Martial arts such as
judo,
karate and
kendÅ are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.
[89]
The
professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936.
[90] Today
baseball is the most popular
spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is
Ichiro Suzuki, who, having won Japan's Most Valuable Player award in 1994, 1995 and 1996, now plays in North American
major league baseball.
Since the establishment of the
Japan Professional Football League in 1992,
association football (soccer) has also gained a wide following.
[91] Japan was a venue of the
Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the
2002 FIFA World Cup with
South Korea. Japan is one of the best soccer teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup the most number of times (3).
Golf is also popular in Japan,
[92] as is
auto racing, the
Super GT sports car series and
Formula Nippon formula racing.
[93]
See also
References
1. ''Nihon RettÅ''
2. Asia’s overlooked Great Power
3. Habu Jinko, "Ancient Jomon of Japan", Cambridge Press, 2004.[1][2]
4. The Yayoi period (c.250 BC – c.AD 250)
5. Japanese Roots, , Jared, Diamond, Discover Magazine Vol. 19 No. 6,
6. Pottery
7. Sources of Japanese Tradition, , William Theodore, De Bary, Columbia University Press, ,
8. The Cambridge History of Japan, , , , Cambridge University Press, 1993,
9. The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan, William Gerald Beasley, , , University of California Press, 1999,
10. A History of Japan, Conrad Totman, , , Blackwell, 2002,
11. A History of Japan, Conrad Totman, , , Blackwell, 2002,
12. A History of Japan, Conrad Totman, , , Blackwell, 2002,
13. A History of Japan: 1334–1615, George Sansom, , , Stanford, 1961,
14. A History of Japan: 1334–1615, George Sansom, , , Stanford, 1961,
15. Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War, Stephen Turnbull, , , Cassel, 2002,
16. Japan Glossary; Kokugaku
17. Japan: The Making of a World Superpower (Imperial Japan) Jesse Arnold
18. The Pearl Harbor Strike Force Kelley L. Ross
19. No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific, Roland H. Worth, Jr., , , McFarland, ,
20. Japanese Instrument of Surrender
21. The Nanking Atrocities: The Postwar Judgment
22. '52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA Joseph Coleman
23. Japan scraps zero interest rates
24. The Constitution of Japan
25. World Factbook; Japan
26. A History of the Liberal Democratic Party
27. Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet
28. "Japanese Civil Code"
29. The Japanese Judicial System
30. Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington Michael Green
31. UK backs Japan for UNSC bid
32. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005-04-11). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
33. Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq
34. Japan's Territorial Disputes
35. Japan approves constitution steps
36. ''Municipal Amalgamation in Japan'' (PDF)
37. Japan—City Population
38. "Japan"
39. Japan Information—Page 1
40. World Population Prospects
41. Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan
42. Attractions: Hot Springs
43. Essential Info: Climate
44. Gifu Prefecture sees highest temperature ever recorded in Japan - 40.9
45. Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness
46. World Economic Outlook Database; country comparisons
47. NationMaster; Economy Statistics
48. Japan's Economy: Free at last
49. Why Germany's economy will outshine Japan
50. Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group, Inc. (2006-07-31). Retrieved on 2006-12-29.
51. Japan Merger Creates World's Largest Bank Washington Post (2004-07-16). Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
52. Market data. New York Stock Exchange (2006-01-31). Retrieved on 2007-08-11.
53. Japan: Patterns of Development
54. World Factbook; Japan—Economy
55. Masake, Hisane. A farewell to zero. ''Asia Times Online'' (2006-03-02). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
56. Kingshuk Roy. . College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University (2006). Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
57. Japan: Country Information
58. An Example of Maritime Operations
59. Blustein, Paul. "China Passes U.S. In Trade With Japan: 2004 Figures Show Asian Giant's Muscle". ''The Washington Post'' (2005-01-27). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
60. McDonald, Joe. "China to spend 6 billion on R&D." ''BusinessWeek'' (2006-12-04).
61. The Boom in Robot Investment Continues—900,000 Industrial Robots by 2003. and United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Press release 2000-10-17. Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
62. World Motor Vehichle Production by Country
63. Japan Plans Moon Base by 2030
64. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage
65. World Factbook; Japan—People
66. The World Factbook: Rank order—Life expectancy at birth
67. Statistical Handbook of Japan: Chapter 2—Population
68. Ogawa, Naohiro."Demographic Trends and Their Implications for Japan's Future" The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Transcript of speech delivered on (7 March, 1997). Retrieved on 14 May 2006.
69. Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's message Hidenori Sakanaka
70. French, Howard."Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". "The New York Times" (2003-07-24). Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
71. World Factbook; Japan—People
72. 言語å¦å¤§è¾žå…¸ã‚»ãƒ¬ã‚¯ã‚·ãƒ§ãƒ³ï¼šæ—¥æœ¬åˆ—島ã®è¨€èªž (''Selection from the Encyclopædia of Linguistics: The Languages of the Japanese Archipelago''). "ç‰çƒåˆ—島ã®è¨€èªž" (''The Languages of the Ryukyu Islands''). 三çœå ‚ 1997
73. 15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan
74. Japan Digest: Japanese Education Lucien Ellington
75. Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About Japanese Education Lucien Ellington
76. School Education
77. Rethinking Japanese education Kate Rossmanith
78. The Times Higher Education Supplement World University Rankings
79. Health Care in Japan Victor Rodwin
80. Health Insurance: General Characteristics
81. A History of Manga
82. The History of Video Games Leonard Herman, Jer Horwitz, Steve Kent, and Skyler Miller
83. Japanese Culture, The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, 1983 edition, © Columbia University Press ISBN 0-380-63396-5
84. J-Pop History
85. Kelly, Bill. (1998). "Japan's Empty Orchestras: Echoes of Japanese culture in the performance of karaoke", ''The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures'', p. 76. Cambridge University Press.
86. Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)
87. Windows on Asia—Literature : Antiquity to Middle Ages: Recent Past
88. Sumo: East and West
89. Culture and Daily Life
90. Total Baseball, Nagata, Yoichi and Holway, John B., , , Viking Press, 1995,
91. Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan
92. Japanese Golf Gets Friendly Fred Varcoe
93. Japanese Omnibus: Sports Len Clarke
External links
; Official
★
Kantei.go.jp—Official
prime ministerial and cabinet site
★
Kunaicho.go.jp—Official site of the
Imperial family.
★
Ministry of Foreign Affairs—Detailed papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life.
★
Shugi-in.go.jp—Official site of the House of Representatives
★
National Diet Library (English)
; Media
★
NHK Online
★
Kyodo News
★
Asahi Shimbun (English)
★
The Japan Times
; Tourism
★
Japan National Tourist Organization
★
; Other
★
CIA World Factbook—''Japan''
★
Encyclopaedia Britannica's Japan portal site
★
Guardian Unlimited—''Special Report: Japan''
★
★ containing the 1889 and 1946 Constitutions
Further reading
★ Christopher, Robert C., ''The Japanese Mind: the Goliath Explained'', Linden Press/Simon and Schuster, 1983 (ISBN 0330284193)
★ De Mente, ''The Japanese Have a Word For It'', McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0-8442-8316-9)
★ Henshall, ''A History of Japan'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0-312-23370-1)
★ Jansen, ''The Making of Modern Japan'', Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0-674-00334-9)
★ Johnson, ''Japan: Who Governs?'', W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0-393-31450-2)
★ Reischauer, ''Japan: The Story of a Nation'', McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0-07-557074-2)
★ Sugimoto et al., ''An Introduction to Japanese Society'', Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-521-52925-5)
★ Van Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese Power'', Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0-679-72802-3)
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